Promoting voluntary risk detection behaviour: an intervention study based on trending social norms combined with emotional appeals

References

• Abrahamse, W., and L. Steg. 2013. “Social Influence Approaches to Encourage Resource Conservation: A Meta-Analysis.” Global Environmental Change 23 (6): 1773–1785. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2013.07.029.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ahmad, S. A., M. H. Khan, and M. Haque. 2018. “Arsenic Contamination in Groundwater in Bangladesh: Implications and Challenges for Healthcare Policy.” Risk Management and Healthcare Policy 11: 251–261. https://doi.org/10.2147/RMHP.S153188.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ayotte, J. D., J. A. M. Gronberg, and L. E. Apodaca. 2011. Trace Elements and Radon in Groundwater across the United States, 1992–2003. Reston, Virginia: U.S. Geological Survey.
   Google Scholar
• Bandura, A. 1977. “Self-Efficacy: Toward a Unifying Theory of Behavioural Change.” Psychological Review 84 (2): 191–215. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295x.84.2.191.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bouman, Thijs, Mark Verschoor, Casper J. Albers, Gisela Böhm, Stephen D. Fisher, Wouter Poortinga, Lorraine Whitmarsh, and Linda Steg. 2020. “When Worry about Climate Change Leads to Climate Action: How Values, Worry and Personal Responsibility Relate to Various Climate Actions.” Global Environmental Change 62: 102061. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2020.102061.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brewer, N. T., G. B. Chapman, F. X. Gibbons, M. Gerrard, K. D. McCaul, and N. D. Weinstein. 2007. “Meta-Analysis of the Relationship between Risk Perception and Health Behavior: The Example of Vaccination.” Health Psychology: Official Journal of the Division of Health Psychology, American Psychological Association 26 (2): 136–145. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-6133.26.2.136.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Breznitz, S. 1971. “A Study of Worrying.” British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 10 (3): 271–279. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8260.1971.tb00747.x.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cameron, L. D. 2008. “Illness Risk Representations and Motivations to Engage in Protective Behavior: The Case of Skin Cancer Risk.” Psychology & Health 23 (1): 91–112. https://doi.org/10.1080/14768320701342383.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cameron, L. D., and C. K. Y. Chan. 2008. “Designing Health Communications: Harnessing the Power of Affect, Imagery, and Self-Regulation.” Social and Personality Psychology Compass 2 (1): 262–282. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2007.00057.x.
   Google Scholar
• Cameron, L. D., and J. Reeve. 2006. “Risk Perceptions, Worry, and Attitudes about Genetic Testing for Breast Cancer Susceptibility.” Psychology & Health 21 (2): 211–230. https://doi.org/10.1080/14768320500230318.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cialdini, R. B., and N. J. Goldstein. 2004. “Social Influence: Compliance and Conformity.” Annual Review of Psychology 55 (1): 591–621. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.55.090902.142015.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cialdini, R. B., and M. R. Trost. 1998. “Social Influence: Social Norms, Conformity and Compliance.” In The Handbook of Social Psychology, edited by D.T. Gilbert, S.T. Fiske, and G. Lindzey, 151–192. New York: McGraw-Hill.
   Google Scholar
• De Groot, J. I. M. 2022. “The Effectiveness of Normative Messages to Decrease Meat Consumption: The Superiority of Dynamic Normative Messages Framed as a Loss.” Frontiers in Sustainability 3: 968201. https://doi.org/10.3389/frsus.2022.968201.
   Google Scholar
• De Groot, J. I. M., K. Bondy, and G. Schuitema. 2021. “Listen to Others or Yourself? The Role of Personal Norms on the Effectiveness of Social Norm Interventions to Change Pro-Environmental Behavior.” Journal of Environmental Psychology 78: 101688. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2021.101688.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Palma, A., N. Picard, and A. Ziegelmeyer. 2011. “Individual and Couple Decision Behavior under Risk: Evidence on the Dynamics of Power Balance.” Theory and Decision 70 (1): 45–64. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11238-009-9179-6.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Di Pelino, S., C. Schuster-Wallace, P. D. Hynds, S. E. Dickson-Anderson, and A. Majury. 2019. “A Coupled-Systems Framework for Reducing Health Risks Associated with Private Drinking Water Wells.” Canadian Water Resources Journal/Revue Canadienne Des Ressources Hydriques 44 (3): 280–290.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dube, L., and M. Morgan. 1996. “Trend Effects and Fender Differences in Retrospective Judgments of Consumption Emotions.” Journal of Consumer Research 23 (2): 156–162. https://doi.org/10.1086/209474.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duke, C. R., G. M. Pickett, L. Carlson, and S. J. Grove. 1993. “A Method for Evaluating the Ethics of Fear Appeals.” Journal of Public Policy & Marketing 12 (1): 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1177/074391569501200112.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• EPA & WHO. 2002. Water and Health in Europe. Brussels, Belgium: World Health Organisation European Office.
   Google Scholar
• EPA. 2020. Ireland’s Environment: An Intergrated Assessment. Wexford, Ireland: Environmental Protection Agency.
   Google Scholar
• Flanagan, S. V., R. G. Marvinney, and Y. Zheng. 2015. “Influences on Domestic Well Water Testing Behavior in a Central Maine Area with Frequent Groundwater Arsenic Occurrence.” Science of the Total Environment 505: 1274–1281. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.05.017.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Geiger, B., and Y. Eshet. 2011. “Two Worlds of Assessment of Environmental Health Issues: The Case of Contaminated Water Wells in Ramat ha‐Sharon.” Journal of Risk Research 14 (1): 125–139. https://doi.org/10.1080/13669877.2010.505688.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hanchett, S., Q. Nahar, A. Van Agthoven, C. Geers, and M. D. Rezvi. 2002. “Increasing Awareness of Arsenic in Bangladesh: Lessons from a Public Education Programme.” Health Policy and Planning 17 (4): 393–401. https://doi.org/10.1093/heapol/17.4.393.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hayes, A. F. 2013. Introduction to Mediation, Moderation and Conditional Process Analyses: A Regression-Based Approach. New York: The Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hayes, A. F. 2015. “An Index and Test of Linear Moderated Mediation.” Multivariate Behavioral Research 50 (1): 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/00273171.2014.962683.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hendriks, Hanneke, Gert-Jan de Bruijn, and Bas van den Putte. 2012. “Talking about Alcohol Consumption: Health Campaigns, Conversational Valence, and Binge Drinking Intentions.” British Journal of Health Psychology 17 (4): 843–853. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8287.2012.02080.x.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hine, D. W., and R. Gifford. 1991. “Fear Appeals, Individual Differences, and Environmental Concern.” The Journal of Environmental Education 23 (1): 36–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/00958964.1991.9943068.
   Google Scholar
• Hooks, T., G. Schuitema, and F. McDermott. 2019. “Risk Perceptions towards Drinking Water Quality among Private Well Owners in Ireland: The Illusion of Control.” Risk Analysis: The journal is Risk Analysis 39 (8): 1741–1754. https://doi.org/10.1111/risa.13283.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huurne, E. T., and J. Gutteling. 2008. “Information Needs and Risk Perception as Predictors of Risk Information Seeking.” Journal of Risk Research 11 (7): 847–862. https://doi.org/10.1080/13669870701875750.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hynds, P. D., B. D. Misstear, and L. W. Gill. 2013. “Unregulated Private Wells in the Republic of Ireland: Consumer Awareness, Source Susceptibility and Protective Actions.” Journal of Environmental Management 127: 278–288. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2013.05.025.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Imgrund, Krystian, Reid Kreutzwiser, and Rob de Loë. 2011. “Influences on the Water Testing Behaviors of Private Well Owners.” Journal of Water and Health 9 (2): 241–252. https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2011.139.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Islam, M. A., H. Sakakibara, M. R. Karim, and M. Sekine. 2011. “Evaluation of Risk Communication for Rural Water Supply Management: A Case Study of a Coastal Area of Bangladesh.” Journal of Risk Research 14 (10): 1237–1262. https://doi.org/10.1080/13669877.2011.574315.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Janssen, E., L. Van Osch, H. De Vries, and L. Lechner. 2013. “The Influence of Narrative Risk Communication on Feelings of Cancer Risk.” British Journal of Health Psychology 18 (2): 407–419. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8287.2012.02098.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones, A. Q., C. E. Dewey, K. Doré, S. E. Majowicz, S. A. McEwen, W. T. David, M. Eric, D. J. Carr, and S. J. Henson. 2006. “Public Perceptions of Drinking Water: A Postal Survey of Residents with Private Water Supplies.” BMC Public Health 6 (1): 94–94. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-6-94.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keller, P. A., and D. R. Lehmann. 2008. “Designing Effective Health Communications: A Meta-Analysis.” Journal of Public Policy & Marketing 27 (2): 117–130. https://doi.org/10.1509/jppm.27.2.117.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kreutzwiser, Reid, Rob de Loë, Krystian Imgrund, Mary Jane Conboy, Hugh Simpson, and Ryan Plummer. 2011. “Understanding Stewardship Behaviour: Factors Facilitating and Constraining Private Water Well Stewardship.” Journal of Environmental Management 92 (4): 1104–1114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2010.11.017.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee, T. J., L. D. Cameron, B. Wünsche, and C. Stevens. 2011. “A Randomized Trial of Computer-Based Communications Using Imagery and Text Information to Alter Representations of Heart Disease Risk and Motivate Protective Behaviour.” British Journal of Health Psychology 16 (Pt 1): 72–91. https://doi.org/10.1348/135910710X511709.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Leventhal, H. 1970. “Findings and Theory in the Study of Fear Communications.” In Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, edited by L. Berkowitz, Vol. 5, 119–186. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Leventhal, H., L. A. Phillips, and E. Burns. 2016. “The Common-Sense Model of Self-Regulation (CSM): A Dynamic Framework for Understanding Illness Self-Management.” Journal of Behavioral Medicine 39 (6): 935–946. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10865-016-9782-2.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loewenstein, G. F., E. U. Weber, C. K. Hsee, and N. Welch. 2001. “Risk as Feelings.” Psychological Bulletin 127 (2): 267–286. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.127.2.267.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loschelder, D. D., H. Siepelmeyer, D. Fischer, and J. A. Rubel. 2019. “Dynamic Norms Drive Sustainable Consumption: Norm-Based Nudging Helps Café Customers to Avoid Disposable to-Go-Cups.” Journal of Economic Psychology 75: 102146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2019.02.002.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lu, J., X. Xie, and R. Zhang. 2013. “Focusing on Appraisals: How and Why Anger and Fear Influence Driving Risk Perception.” Journal of Safety Research 45: 65–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2013.01.009.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lund, K. E., and Á. R. Helgason. 2005. “Environmental Tobacco Smoke in Norwegian Homes, 1995 and 2001: Changes in Children’s Exposure and Parent’s Attitudes and Health Risk Awareness.” European Journal of Public Health 15 (2): 123–127. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurpub/cki075.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maddux, J. E., and R. W. Rogers. 1983. “Protection Motivation and Self-Efficacy: A Revised Theory of Fear Appeals and Attitude Change.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 19 (5): 469–479. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1031(83)90023-9.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCaul, K. D., A. B. Mullens, K. M. Romanek, S. C. Erickson, and B. J. Gatheridge. 2007. “The Motivational Effects of Thinking and Worrying about the Effects of Smoking Cigarettes.” Cognition & Emotion 21 (8): 1780–1798. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930701442840.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McQueen, A., S. W. Vernon, H. I. Meissner, and W. Rakowski. 2008. “Risk Perceptions and Worry about Cancer: Does Gender Make a Difference?” Journal of Health Communication 13 (1): 56–79. https://doi.org/10.1080/10810730701807076.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Megdal, S. B. 2018. “Invisible Water: The Importance of Good Groundwater Governance and Management.” NPJ Clean Water. 1 (1): 15. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41545-018-0015-9.
   Google Scholar
• Meijnders, A. L., C. J. H. Midden, and H. A. M. Wilke. 2001. “Communications about Environmental Risks and Risk-Reducing Behavior: The Impact of Fear on Information Processing.” Journal of Applied Social Psychology 31 (4): 754–777. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2001.tb01412.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meyerowitz, B. E., and S. Chaiken. 1987. “The Effect of Message Framing on Breast Self-Examination Attitudes, Intentions, and Behavior.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 52 (3): 500–510. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.52.3.500.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Milne, S., P. Sheeran, and S. Orbell. 2000. “Prediction and Intervention in Health-Related Behavior: A Meta-Analytic Review of Protection Motivation Theory.” Journal of Applied Social Psychology 30 (1): 106–143. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2000.tb02308.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morris, L., S. Wilson, and W. Kelly. 2016. “Methods of Conducting Effective Outreach to Private Well Owners - a Literature Review and Model Approach.” Journal of Water and Health 14 (2): 167–182. https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2015.081.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mortensen, C. R., R. Neel, R. B. Cialdini, C. M. Jaeger, R. P. Jacobson, and M. M. Ringel. 2017. “Trending Norms: A Lever for Encouraging Behaviors Performed by the Minority.” Social Psychological and Personality Science 10 (2): 201–210. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550617734615.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nabi, R. L. 2015. “Emotional Flow in Persuasive Health Messages.” Health Communication 30 (2): 114–124. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2014.974129.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nordgren, L. F., J. Van der Pligt, and F. Van Harreveld. 2007. “Unpacking Perceived Control in Risk Perception: The Mediating Role of Anticipated Regret.” Journal of Behavioral Decision Making 20 (5): 533–544. https://doi.org/10.1002/bdm.565.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parkinson, B. 2011. “Interpersonal Emotion Transfer: Contagion and Social Appraisal.” Social and Personality Psychology Compass 5 (7): 428–439. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2011.00365.x.
   Google Scholar
• Parkinson, B., and G. Simons. 2009. “Affecting Others: Social Appraisal and Emotion Contagion in Everyday Decision Making.” Personality and Social Psycholical Bulletin 35 (8): 1071–1084.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parkinson, B., and G. Simons. 2012. “Worry Spreads: Interpersonal Transfer of Problem-Related Anxiety.” Cognition & Emotion 26 (3): 462–479. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2011.651101.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rao, S. M., and P. Mamatha. 2004. “Water Quality in Sustainable Water Management.” Current Science 87 (7): 942–947.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rogers, R. W. 1975. “A Protection Motivation Theory of Fear Appeals and Attitude Change.” Journal of Psychology 91 (1): 93–114.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rothman, A. J., R. D. Bartels, J. Wlaschin, and P. Salovey. 2006. “The Strategic Use of Gain- and Loss-Framed Messages to Promote Healthy Behavior: How Theory Can Inform Practice.” Journal of Communication 56 (suppl_1): S202–S220. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2006.00290.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schuitema, G., T. Hooks, and F. McDermott. 2020. “Water Quality Perceptions and Private Well Management: The Role of Perceived Risks, Worry and Control.” Journal of Environmental Management 267: 110654. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.110654.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schultz, P. W., J. M. Nolan, R. B. Cialdini, N. J. Goldstein, and V. Griskevicius. 2007. “The Constructive, Destructive, and Reconstructive Power of Social Norms.” Psychological Science 18 (5): 429–434. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01917.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schultz, P. W., J. M. Nolan, R. B. Cialdini, N. J. Goldstein, and V. Griskevicius. 2018. “The Constructive, Destructive, and Reconstructive Power of Social Norms: Reprise.” Perspectives on Psychological Science 13 (2): 249–254. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691617693325.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwab, N. G., J. C. Cullum, and H. C. Harton. 2016. “Clustering of Worry Appraisals among College Students.” Journal of Social Psycholy 156 (4): 413–421.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwartz, S. H., L. Sagiv, and K. Boehnke. 2000. “Worries and Values.” Journal of Personality 68 (2): 309–346. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-6494.00099.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sjöberg, L. 1998. “Worry and Risk Perception.” Risk Analysis: An Official Publication of the Society for Risk Analysis 18 (1): 85–93. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1539-6924.1998.tb00918.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sjöberg, L. 2007. “Emotions and Risk Perception.” Risk Management 9 (4): 223–237. https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.rm.8250038.
   Google Scholar
• Slovic, P. 1987. “Perception of Risk.” Science (New York, N.Y.) 236 (4799): 280–285. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.3563507.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Slovic, P., M. L. Finucane, E. Peters, and D. G. MacGregor. 2002. “The Affect Heuristic.” European Journal of Operational Research 177 (3): 1333–1352. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejor.2005.04.006.
   Google Scholar
• Smith, J. R., M. A. Hogg, R. Martin, and D. J. Terry. 2007. “Uncertainty and the Influence of Group Norms in the Attitude–Behaviour Relationship.” British Journal of Social Psychology 46 (4): 769–792. https://doi.org/10.1348/014466606X164439.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Smith, N., and A. A. Leiserowitz. 2014. “The Role of Emotion in Global Warming Policy Support and Opposition.” Risk Analysis: An Official Publication of the Society for Risk Analysis 34 (5): 937–948. https://doi.org/10.1111/risa.12140.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, A. H., E. O. Lingas, and M. Rahman. 2000. “Contamination of Drinking-Water by Arsenicin Bangladesh: A Public Health Emergency.” Bulletin of the World Health Organization 78 (9): 1093–1103.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Snyder, L. B., M. A. Hamilton, E. W. Mitchell, J. Kiwanuka-Tondo, F. Fleming-Milici, and D. Proctor. 2004. “A Meta-Analysis of the Effect of Mediated Health Communication Campaigns on Behavior Change in the United States.” Journal of Health Communication 9(Suppl. 1): 71–96. https://doi.org/10.1080/10810730490271548.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sobkow, A., T. Zaleskiewicz, D. Petrova, R. Garcia-Retamero, and J. Traczyk. 2020. “Worry, Risk Perception, and Controllability Predict Intentions toward COVID-19 Preventive Behaviors.” Frontiers of Psychology 11: 582720.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sparkman, G., B. N. J. Macdonald, K. D. Caldwell, B. Kateman, and G. D. Boese. 2021. “Cut Back or Give It up? The Effectiveness of Reduce and Eliminate Appeals and Dynamic Norm Messaging to Curb Meat Consumption.” Journal of Environmental Psychology 75: 101592. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2021.101592.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sparkman, G., and G. M. Walton. 2017. “Dynamic Norms Promote Sustainable Behavior, Even If It is Counternormative.” Psychological Science 28 (11): 1663–1674. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797617719950.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stok, F. M., D. T. D. De Ridder, E. De Vet, and J. B. F. De Wit. 2012. “Minority Talks: The Influence of Descriptive Social Norms on Fruit Intake.” Psychology & Health 27 (8): 956–970. https://doi.org/10.1080/08870446.2011.635303.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Syme, G. J., and K. D. Williams. 1993. “The Psychology of Drinking Water Quality: An Exploratory Study.” Water Resources Research 29 (12): 4003–4010. https://doi.org/10.1029/93WR01933.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tallis, F., and M. W. Eysenck. 1994. “Worry: Mechanisms and Modulating Influences.” Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy 22 (1): 37–56. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1352465800011796.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tannenbaum, M. B., J. Hepler, R. S. Zimmerman, L. Saul, S. Jacobs, K. Wilson, and D. Albarracín. 2015. “Appealing to Fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories.” Psychological Bulletin 141 (6): 1178–1204. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0039729.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tanner, J. F., L. A. Carlson, M. A. Raymond, and C. D. Hopkins. 2008. “Reaching Parents to Prevent Adolescent Risky Behavior: Examining the Effects of Threat Portrayal and Parenting Orientation on Parental Participation Perceptions.” Journal of Public Policy & Marketing 27 (2): 149–155. https://doi.org/10.1509/jppm.27.2.149.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turner, M. M. 2012. “Using Emotional Appeals in Health Messages.” In Health Communication Message Design: Theory and Practice, edited by H. Cho, 59–72. Washington, D.C.: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• US EPA. 2019. Potential well water contaminants and their impacts. Accessed July 11, 2023. https://www.epa.gov/privatewells/potential-well-water-contaminants-and-their-impacts.
   Google Scholar
• Weinstein, N. D. 1999. “What Does It Mean to Understand a Risk? Evaluating Risk Comprehension.” Journal of the National Cancer Institute (JNCI) Monographs 25: 15–20.
   Google Scholar
• WHO. 2018. Fact sheet: Arscenic. Accessed July 11, 2023. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/arsenic
   Google Scholar
• Witte, K., and M. Allen. 2000. “A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeals: Implications for Effective Public Health Campaigns.” Health Education & Behavior: The Official Publication of the Society for Public Health Education 27 (5): 591–615. https://doi.org/10.1177/109019810002700506.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yousef, M., S. Rundle-Thiele, and T. Dietrich. 2023. “Advertising Appeals Effectiveness: A Systematic Literature Review.” Health Promotion International 38 (4): daab204. https://doi.org/10.1093/heapro/daab204.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar