A comparison between verbal working memory and vocabulary in bilingual and monolingual South African school beginners: implications for bilingual language assessment

References

• Alloway, T. P. 2007. Automated Working Memory Assessment. London: Pearson Assessment.
   Google Scholar
• Alloway, T. P., and R. G. Alloway. 2010. “Investigating the Predictive Role of Working Memory and IQ in Academic Attainment.” Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 106 (1): 20–29. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2009.11.003.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alloway, T. P., S. E. Gathercole, C. Willis, and A.-M. Adams. 2004. “A Structural Analysis of Working memory and Related Cognitive Skills in Early Childhood.” Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 87 (2): 85–106. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2003.10.002.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alloway, T. P., and M. C. Passolunghi. 2011. “The Relations between Working Memory and Arithmetical Abilities: A Comparison between Italian and British Children.” Learning and Individual Differences 21 (1): 133–137. doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2010.09.013.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anton, E., J. A. Dunabeitia, A. Estevez, J. A. Hernandez, A. Castillo, L. J. Fuentes, D. J. Davidson, and M. Carreiras. 2014. “Is there a Bilingual Advantage in the ANT Task? Evidence from Children.” Frontiers in Psychology 5 (398): 1–12.
   Google Scholar
• Archibald, L. M. D. 2008. “The Promise of Nonword Repetition as a Clinical Tool.” Canadian Journal of Speech Language Pathology and Audiology 32: 21–28.
   Google Scholar
• Baddeley, A. 2000. “The Episodic Buffer: A New Component of Working Memory?” Trends in Cognitive Sciences 4 (11): 417–423. doi:10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01538-2.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bialystok, E. 2009. “Bilingualism: The Good, the Bad and the Indifferent.” Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 12 (01): 3–11. doi:10.1017/S1366728908003477.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bialystok, E., F. I. M. Craik, and G. Luk. 2008. “Lexical Access in Bilinguals: Effects of Vocabulary Size and Executive Control.” Journal of Neurolinguistics 21 (6): 522–538. doi:10.1016/j.jneuroling.2007.07.001.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bialystok, E., F. I. M. Craik, and J. Ryan. 2006. “Executive Control in a Modified Antisaccade Task: Effects of Aging and Bilingualism.” Journal of Experimental Psychology – Learning, Memory and Cognition 32 (6): 1341–1354. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.32.6.1341.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bialystok, E., and X. Feng, X. 2009. “Language Proficiency and Executive Control in Proactive Interference: Evidence from Monolingual and Bilingual Children and Adults.” Brain and Language 109 (2–3): 93–100. doi:10.1016/j.bandl.2008.09.001.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bialystok, E., G. Luk, K. F. Peets, and S. Yang, S. 2010. “Receptive Vocabulary Differences in Monolingual and Bilingual Children.” Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 13 (4): 525–531. doi:10.1017/S1366728909990423.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bialystok, E., M. M. Martin, and M. Viswanathan. 2005. “Bilingualism across the Lifespan: The Rise and Fall of Inhibitory Control.” International Journal of Bilingualism 9 (1): 103–119. doi:10.1177/13670069050090010701.
   Google Scholar
• Bill of Rights–29 (2). 1996 New South African Constitution Act 108 of 1996. Pretoria: Government Printers.
   Google Scholar
• Broom, Y. 2004. “Reading English in Multilingual South African Primary Schools.” International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 7 (6): 506–528. doi:10.1080/13670050408667828.
   Google Scholar
• Cain, K., J. Oakhill, and P. Bryant. 2004. “Children's Reading Comprehension Ability: Concurrent Prediction by Working Memory, Verbal Ability, and Component Skills.” Journal of Educational Psychology 96 (1): 31–42. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.96.1.31.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campbell, T., C. Dollaghan, H. Needleman, and J. Janosky. 1997. “Reducing Bias in Language Assessment: Processing Dependent Measures.” Journal of Speech, language and Hearing Research 40 (3): 519–525. doi:10.1044/jslhr.4003.519.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carlson, S. M., and A. N. Meltzoff. 2008. “Bilingual Experience and Executive Functioning in Young Children.” Developmental Science 11 (2): 282–298. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2008.00675.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen, J. 1992. “A Power Primer.” Psychological Bulletin 112 (1): 155–159. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.112.1.155.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cowan, N., and T. P. Alloway. 2008. “The Development of Working Memory in Childhood.” In Development of Memory in Infancy and Childhood. 2nd ed., edited by M. Courage and N. Cowan, 303–342. Hove: Psychology Press.
   Google Scholar
• Cowan, N., E. M. Elliott, J. S. Saults, C. C. Morey, S. Mattox, A. Hismjatullina, and A. R. Conway. 2005. “On the Capacity of Attention: Its Estimation and its Role in Working Memory and Cognitive Aptitudes.” Cognitive Psychology 51 (1): 42–100. doi:10.1016/j.cogpsych.2004.12.001.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Klerk, V. 2006. “Code Switching, Borrowing and Mixing in a Corpus of Xhosa English.” The International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 9 (5): 597–614. doi:10.2167/beb382.0.
   Google Scholar
• Department of Education. 1997. Language in Education Policy 14 July 1997. Government Gazette, 18546, 5.
   Google Scholar
• Duñabeitia, J. A., J. A. Hernández, E. Antón, P. Macizo, A. Estévez, L. J. Carreiras, and M. Fuentes 2014. “The Inhibitory Advantage in Bilingual Children Revisited Myth or Reality?” Experimental Psychology (Formerly Zeitschrift für Experimentelle Psychologie) 61 (3): 234–251. doi:10.1027/1618-3169/a000243.
   Google Scholar
• Dunn, L. M., L. M. Dunn, C. W. Whetton, and J. Burley. 1997. British Picture Vocabulary Scale. 2nd ed. Windsor: NFER-Nelson.
   Google Scholar
• Engel, P. M. J., F. H. Santos, and S. E. Gathercole. 2008. “Are Working Memory Measure Free of Socioeconomic Influence?” Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research 51 (6): 1580–1587. doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2008/07-0210.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Engel de Abreu, P. M. J. 2011. “Working Memory in Multilingual Children: Is There a Bilingual Effect?” Memory 19 (5): 529–537. doi:10.1080/09658211.2011.590504.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Engel de Abreu, P. M. J., M. Baldassi, M. L. Puglisi, and D. M. Befi-Lopes. 2012. “Cross-linguistic and Cross-cultural Effects on Verbal Working Memory and Vocabulary.” Journal of Speech, Language and Hearing Research 56 (2): 630–642. doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2012/12-0079).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Engel de Abreu, P. M. J., S. E. Gathercole, and R. Martin. 2011. “Disentangling the Relationship between Working Memory and Language: The Roles of Short-term Storage and Cognitive Control.” Learning and Individual Difference 21 (5): 569–574. doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2011.06.002.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Engle, R. W. 2010. “Role of Working Memory Capacity in Cognitive Control.”Current Anthropology 51 (1): S17–S26. doi:10.1086/650572.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fernandes, M. A., F. Craik, E. Bialystok, and S. Kreuger. 2007. “Effects of Bilingualism, Aging, and Semantic Relatedness on Meaning under Divided Attention.” Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology/Revue canadienne de psychologie expérimentale 61 (2): 128–141. doi:10.1037/cjep2007014.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Flanagan, D. P., S. O. Ortiz, and V. C. Alfonso. 2013. Essentials of Cross Battery Assessment. New York: Wiley.
   Google Scholar
• Gathercole, S. E. 1995. “Is Nonword Repetition a Test of Phonological Memory or Long-term Knowledge? It All Depends on the Nonwords.” Memory and Cognition 23 (1): 83–94. doi:10.3758/BF03210559.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gathercole, S. E. 2006. “Nonword Repetition and Word Learning: The Nature of the Relationship.” Applied Psycholinguistics 27 (4): 513–543.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gathercole, S. E., T. P. Alloway, C. Willis, and A.-M. Adams. 2006. “Working Memory in Children with Reading Disabilities.” Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 93 (3): 265–281. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2005.08.003.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gathercole, S. E., C. R. Frankish, S. J. Pickering, and S. Peaker. 1999. “Phonotactic Influences on Short Term Memory.” Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition 25 (1): 84–95. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.25.1.84.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gathercole, S. E., S. J. Pickering, C. Knight, and Z. Stegmann. 2004. “Working Memory Skills and Educational Attainment: Evidence from National Curriculum Assessments at 7 and 14 Years of Age.” Applied Cognitive Psychology 18 (1): 1–16. doi:10.1002/acp.934.
   Google Scholar
• Gathercole, V. C. M., E. M. Thomas, I. Kennedy, C. Prys, N. Young, N. Vinas Guasch, et al. 2014. “Does Language Dominance Affect Cognitive Performance in Bilinguals? Lifespan Evidence from Preschoolers through Older Adults on Card Sorting, Simon and Metalinguistic tasks.” Frontiers in Psychology 5: 11. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00011.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Geary, D. C., M. K. Hoard, J. Byrd-Craven, and M. C. DeSoto. 2004. “Strategy Choices in Simple and Complex Addition: Contributions of Working Memory and Counting Knowledge for Children with Mathematical Disability.” Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 88 (2): 121–151. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2004.03.002.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gollan, T. H., C. Fennema-Notestine, R. I. Montoya, and T. L. Jernigan. 2007. “The Bilingual Effect on Boston Naming Test Performance.” Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society 13 (2): 197–208.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoff, E. 2003. “The Specificity of Environmental Influence: Socioeconomic Status Affects Early Vocabulary Development via Maternal Speech.” Child Development 74 (5): 1368–1378. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00612.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoff, E. 2006. “How Social Contexts Support and Shape Language Development.” Developmental Review 26 (1): 55–88. doi:10.1016/j.dr.2005.11.002.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaplan, E., H. Goodglass, and S. Weintraub. 1976. The Boston Naming Test. Boston, MA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
   Google Scholar
• Kline, R. B. 2005. Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modelling. 2nd Ed. New York: Guilford.
   Google Scholar
• Kohnert, K., J. Windsor, and D. Yim. 2006. “Do Language Based Processing Tasks Separate Children with Language Impairment from Typical Bilinguals?” Learning Disabilities Research & Practice 21 (1): 19–29. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5826.2006.00204.x.
   Google Scholar
• Lezak, M. D., D. B. Howieson, and D.W. Loring. 2004. Neuropsychological Assessment. 4th ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Martin-Rhee, M. M., and E. Bialystok. 2008. “The Development of Two Types of Inhibitory Control in Monolingual and Bilingual Children.” Bilingualism – Language and Cognition11 (1): 81–93. doi:10.1017/S1366728907003227.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Masoura, E. V., and S. E. Gathercole. 2005. “Contrasting Contributions of Phonological Short-term Memory and Long-term Knowledge to Vocabulary Learning in a Foreign Language.” Memory 13 (3–4): 422–429.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Michael, E. B., and T. H. Gollan. 2005. “Being and Becoming Bilingual: Individual Differences and Consequences for Language Production.” In Handbook of Bilingualism: Psycholinguistic Approaches, edited by J. F. Kroll and A. M. de Groot, 389–407. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Miyake, A., and N. P. Friedman. 2012. “The Nature and Organization of Individual Differences in Executive Functions: Four General Conclusions.” Current Directions in Psychological Science 21 (1): 8–14. doi:10.1177/0963721411429458.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morales, J., A. Calvo, and E. Bialystok. 2013. “Working Memory Development in Monolingual and Bilingual Children.” Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 114 (2): 187–202. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2012.09.002.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Namazi, M., and E. Thordardottir. 2010. “A Working Memory, Not Bilingual Advantage, in Controlled Attention.” International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 13 (5): 597–616. doi:10.1080/13670050.2010.488288.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• National Foundation for Educational Research. 2013. Accessed June 2, 2014 from http://www.nfer.ac.uk/nfer/index.cfm?9B1C0068-C29E-AD4D-0AEC-8B4F43F54A28.
   Google Scholar
• Niesler, T., P. Louw, and J. Roux. 2005. “Phonetic Analysis of Afrikaans, English, Xhosa and Zulu Using South African Speech Databases.” Southern African Linguistics and Applied Language Studies 23 (4): 459–474. doi:10.2989/16073610509486401.
   Google Scholar
• Nores, M., and W. S. Barnett. 2010. “Benefits of Early Childhood Interventions Across the World: (Under)Investing in the Very Young.” Economics of Education Review 29 (2): 271–282. doi:10.1016/j.econedurev.2009.09.001.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• OECD. 2010. International Migration Outlook 2010. Paris: OECD.
   Google Scholar
• Paap, K. R., and Z. I. Greenberg. 2013. “There Is No Coherent Evidence for a Bilingual Advantage in Executive Processing.” Cognitive Psychology 66 (2): 232–258. doi:10.1016/j.cogpsych.2012.12.002.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raven, J. C., J. H. Court, and J. Raven. 1998. Raven’s Coloured Progressive Matrices. London: H. K. Lewis.
   Google Scholar
• South African Audience Research Foundation. 2001. Living Standards Measure. Accessed July 14, 2014 from http://www.saarf.co.za/LSM/lsm.asp.
   Google Scholar
• Statistics South Africa. 2012. Annual Financial Statistics (AFS), 2012. Accessed April 21, 2014 from http://beta2.statssa.gov.za/?page_id=1854&PPN=P0021&SCH=5692.
   Google Scholar
• Swanson, H. L., and M. Beebe-Frankenberger. 2004. “The Relationship between Working Memory and Mathematical Problem Solving in Children at Risk and not at Risk for Math Disabilities.” Journal of Educational Psychology 96 (3): 471–491. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.96.3.471.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Swanson, H. L., and C. Sachse-Lee. 2001. “Mathematical Problem-solving and Working Memory in Children with Learning Disabilities: Both Executive and Phonological Processes Are Important.” Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 79 (3): 294–321. doi:10.1006/jecp.2000.2587.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thordardottir, E., A. Rothenberg, M.-E. Rivard, and R. Naves. 2006. “Bilingual Assessment: Can Overall Proficiency Be Estimated from Separate Measurements of Two Languages?” Journal of Multicultural Communication Disorders 4 (1): 1–21. doi:10.1080/14769670500215647.
   Google Scholar
• Unsworth, N., and R. W. Engle. 2006. “Simple and Complex Memory Spans and their Relation to Fluid Abilities: Evidence from List-length Effects.” Journal of Memory and Language 54 (1): 68–80. doi:10.1016/j.jml.2005.06.003.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Welsh, J. A., R. L. Nix, C. Blair, K. L. Bierman, and K. E. Nelson. 2010. “The Development of Cognitive Skills and Gains in Academic School Readiness for Children from Low-income Families.” Journal of Educational Psychology 102 (1): 43–53. doi:10.1037/a0016738.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar