References
- Anderson, J. A., L. Mak, A. K. Chahi, and E. Bialystok. 2018. “The Language and Social Background Questionnaire: Assessing Degree of Bilingualism in a Diverse Population.” Behavior Research Methods 50 (1): 250–263.
- August, D., and T. Shanahan. 2006. “Synthesis: Instruction and Professional Development.” In Developing Literacy in Second-Language Learners: Report of the National Literacy Panel on Language-Minority Children and Youth, edited by D. August and T. Shanahan, 321–335. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
- Babcock, L., M. Capizzi, S. Arbula, and A. Vallesi. 2017. “Short-term Memory Improvement after Simultaneous Interpretation Training.” Journal of Cognitive Enhancement 1 (3): 254–267. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s41465-017-0011-x.
- Baddeley, A. 2000. “The Episodic Buffer: A New Component of Working Memory?” Trends in Cognitive Sciences 4 (11): 417–423. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01538-2.
- Baddeley, A. 2003. “Working Memory: Looking Back and Looking Forward.” Nature Reviews Neuroscience 4 (10): 829–839. doi:https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-120710-100422.
- Baddeley, A. 2012. “Working Memory: Theories, Models, and Controversies.” Annual Review of Psychology 63: 1–29.
- Baum, S., and D. Titone. 2014. “Moving Toward a Neuroplasticity View of Bilingualism, Executive Control, and Aging.” Applied Psycholinguistics 35 (5): 857–894. doi:https://doi.org/10.1017/S0142716414000174.
- Bialystok, E. 2018. “Bilingualism and Executive Function.” In Bilingual Cognition and Language: The State of the Science Across its Subfields. Vol. 54, edited by David Miller, Fatih Bayram, Jason Rothman, and Ludovica Serratrice, 283–307. Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
- Bialystok, E., and R. Barac. 2012. “Emerging Bilingualism: Dissociating Advantages for Metalinguistic Awareness and Executive Control.” Cognition 122 (1): 67–73. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2011.08.003.
- Bialystok, E., F. I. M. Craik, and G. Luk. 2012. “Bilingualism: Consequences for Mind and Brain.” Trends in Cognitive Sciences 16 (4): 240–250. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2012.03.001.
- Bialystok, E., and X. Feng. 2009. “Language Proficiency and Executive Control in Proactive Interference: Evidence From Monolingual and Bilingual Children and Adults.” Brain and Language 109 (2–3): 93–100. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandl.2008.09.001.
- Blom, E., A. C. Küntay, M. Messer, J. Verhagen, and P. Leseman. 2014. “The Benefits of Being Bilingual: Working Memory in Bilingual Turkish–Dutch Children.” Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 128: 105–119. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2014.06.007.
- Blumenfeld, H. K., and V. Marian. 2013. “Parallel Language Activation and Cognitive Control During Spoken Word Recognition in Bilinguals.” Journal of Cognitive Psychology 25 (5): 547–567. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/20445911.2013.812093.
- Bonifacci, P., L. Giombini, S. Bellocchi, and S. Contento. 2011. “Speed of Processing, Anticipation, Inhibition and Working Memory in Bilinguals.” Developmental Science 14 (2): 256–269. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2010.00974.x.
- Bosma, E., E. Blom, and A. Versloot. 2017. “Language Balance and Cognitive Advantages in Frisian-Dutch Bilingual Children.” In Bilingualism and Minority Languages in Europe: Current Trends and Developments, edited by F. Lauchlan and M. C. Parafita Couto, 143–150. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
- Bosma, E., E. Hoekstra, A. Versloot, and E. Blom. 2017. “The Minimal and Short-Lived Effects of Minority Language Exposure on the Executive Functions of Frisian-Dutch Bilingual Children.” Frontiers in Psychology 8: 1453. doi:https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01453.
- Boyle, A., D. August, L. Tabaku, S. Cole, and A. Simpson-Baird. 2015. Dual Language Education Programs: Current State Policies and Practices. U.S. Department of Education Office of English Language Acquisition. Washington, DC: American Institutes for Research.
- Brainerd, C. J., and J. Kingma. 1985. “On the Independence of Short-Term Memory and Working Memory in Cognitive Development.” Cognitive Psychology 17 (2): 210–247.
- Brehmer, Y., H. Westerberg, and L. Bäckman. 2012. “Working-memory Training in Younger and Older Adults: Training Gains, Transfer, and Maintenance.” Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 6 (63): 1–7. doi:https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2012.00063.
- Calabria, M., M. Hernández, F. M. Branzi, and A. Costa. 2012. “Qualitative Differences Between Bilingual Language Control and Executive Control: Evidence From Task-Switching.” Frontiers in Psychology 2: 1–10. doi:https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00399.
- Cantor, J., R. W. Engle, and G. Hamilton. 1991. “Short-term Memory, Working Memory, and Verbal Abilities: How do They Relate?” Intelligence 15 (2): 229–246.
- Cowan, N. 1995. Oxford Psychology Series, No. 26. Attention and Memory: An Integrated Framework. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
- Dearden, J. 2015. English as a Medium of Instruction —a Growing Global Phenomenon. London: British Council. Accessed April 22 2018. https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/sites/teacheng/files/pub_E484%20EMI%20-%20Cover%20option_3%20FINAL_Web.pdf.
- Delgado, P., G. Guerrero, J. P. Goggin, and B. B. Ellis. 1999. “Self-assessment of Linguistic Skills by Bilingual Hispanics.” Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences 21 (1): 31–46.
- Delis, D. C., E. Kaplan, and J. H. Kramer. 2001. D-KEFS: Examiners Manual. San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation.
- Diamond, A., and K. Lee. 2011. “Interventions Shown to Aid Executive Function Development in Children 4 to 12 Years old.” Science 333 (6045): 959–964. doi:https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1204529.
- D’Souza, A. A., L. Moradzadeh, and M. Wiseheart. 2018. “Musical Training, Bilingualism, and Executive Function: Working Memory and Inhibitory Control.” Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications 3: 11. doi:https://doi.org/10.1186/s41235-018-0095-6.
- Engel de Abreu, P. M. 2011. “Working Memory in Multilingual Children: Is There a Bilingual Effect?” Memory (Hove, England) 19 (5): 529–537. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/09658211.2011.590504.
- Engel de Abreu, P. M., A. Cruz-Santos, C. J. Tourinho, R. Martin, and E. Bialystok. 2012. “Bilingualism Enriches the Poor: Enhanced Cognitive Control in low-Income Minority Children.” Psychological Science 23 (11): 1364–1371. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797612443836.
- Engle, R. W., and M. J. Kane. 2004. “Psychology of Learning and Motivation.” Psychology of Learning and Motivation 44: 145–200.
- Engle, R. W., S. W. Tuholski, J. E. Laughlin, and A. R. Conway. 1999. “Working Memory, Short-Term Memory, and General Fluid Intelligence: A Latent-Variable Approach.” Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 128 (3): 309–331.
- Fan, J. J. 2016. “The Construct and Predictive Validity of a Self-Assessment Scale.” Papers in Language Testing and Assessment 5 (2): 69–100.
- Festman, J., A. Rodriguez-Fornells, and T. F. Münte. 2010. “Individual Differences in Control of Language Interference in Late Bilinguals are Mainly Related to General Executive Abilities.” Behavioral and Brain Functions 6 (1): 5–27. doi:https://doi.org/10.1186/1744-9081-6-5.
- Goriot, C., M. Broersma, J. M. McQueen, S. Unsworth, and R. Van Hout. 2018. “Language Balance and Switching Ability in Children Acquiring English as a Second Language.” Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 173: 168–186.
- Gruber, O., and T. Goschke. 2004. “Executive Control Emerging from Dynamic Interactions between Brain Systems Mediating Language, Working Memory and Attentional Processes.” Acta Psychologica 115 (2): 105–121. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2003.12.003.
- Hammer, C. S., E. Hoff, Y. Uchikoshi, C. Gillanders, D. C. Castro, and L. E. Sandilos. 2014. “The Language and Literacy Development of Young Dual Language Learners: A Critical Review.” Early Childhood Research Quarterly 29 (4): 715–733.
- Hammer, C. S., G. Jia, and Y. Uchikoshi. 2011. “Language and Literacy Development of Dual Language Learners Growing up in the United States: A Call for Research.” Child Development Perspectives 5 (1): 4–9.
- Hammer, C. S., F. R. Lawrence, and A. W. Miccio. 2008. “The Effect of Summer Vacation on Bilingual Preschoolers’ Language Development.” Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics 22 (9): 686–702.
- Hartanto, A., W. X. Toh, and H. Yang. 2018. “Bilingualism Narrows Socioeconomic Disparities in Executive Functions and Self-Regulatory Behaviors During Early Childhood: Evidence From the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study.” Child Development. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13032.
- Hartanto, A., and H. Yang. 2016. “Disparate Bilingual Experiences Modulate Task-switching Advantages: A Diffusion-model Analysis of the Effects of Interactional Context on Switch Costs.” Cognition 150: 10–19.
- Hernández, M., A. Costa, and G. W. Humphreys. 2012. “Escaping Capture: Bilingualism Modulates Distraction From Working Memory.” Cognition 122 (1): 37–50. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2011.08.002.
- Hilchey, M. D., and R. M. Klein. 2011. “Are There Bilingual Advantages on Nonlinguistic Interference Tasks? Implications for the Plasticity of Executive Control Processes.” Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 18 (4): 625–658. doi:https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-011-0116-7.
- Kim, D. H., R. G. Lambert, and D. C. Burts. 2018. “Are Young Dual Language Learners Homogeneous? Identifying Subgroups Using Latent Class Analysis.” The Journal of Educational Research 111 (1): 43–57.
- Klingberg, T., H. Forssberg, and H. Westerberg. 2002. “Increased Brain Activity in Frontal and Parietal Cortex Underlies the Development of Visuospatial Working Memory Capacity During Childhood.” Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 14 (1): 1–10. doi:https://doi.org/10.1162/089892902317205276.
- Kroll, J. F., S. C. Bobb, M. Misra, and T. Guo. 2008. “Language Selection in Bilingual Speech: Evidence for Inhibitory Processes.” Acta Psychologica 128 (3): 416–430. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2008.02.001.
- Lehtonen, M., A. Soveri, A. Laine, J. Järvenpää, A. de Bruin, and J. Antfolk. 2018. “Is Bilingualism Associated with Enhanced Executive Functioning in Adults? A Meta-Analytic Review.” Psychological Bulletin 144 (4): 394–425. doi:https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000142.
- Luk, G., J. A. Anderson, F. I. Craik, C. Grady, and E. Bialystok. 2010. “Distinct Neural Correlates for two Types of Inhibition in Bilinguals: Response Inhibition Versus Interference Suppression.” Brain and Cognition 74 (3): 347–357. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2010.09.004.
- Luk, G., and E. Bialystok. 2013. “Bilingualism is not a Categorical Variable: Interaction Between Language Proficiency and Usage.” Journal of Cognitive Psychology 25 (5): 605–621. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/20445911.2013.795574.
- Ma, W., and P. Winke. 2019. “Self-Assessment: How Reliable is it in Assessing Oral Proficiency Over Time?” Foreign Language Annals 52 (1): 66–86.
- Macnamara, B. N., and A. R. Conway. 2014. “Novel Evidence in Support of the Bilingual Advantage: Influences of Task Demands and Experience on Cognitive Control and Working Memory.” Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 21 (2): 520–525. doi:https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-013-0524-y.
- Marian, V., H. K. Blumenfeld, and M. Kaushanskaya. 2007. “The Language Experience and Proficiency Questionnaire (LEAP-Q): Assessing Language Profiles in Bilinguals and Multilinguals.” Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research 50: 940–967.
- Miyake, A., N. P. Friedman, M. J. Emerson, A. H. Witzki, A. Howerter, A. and T, and D. Wager. 2000. “The Unity and Diversity of Executive Functions and Their Contributions to Complex “Frontal Lobe” Tasks: A Latent Variable Analysis.” Cognitive Psychology 41 (1): 49–100. doi:https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734.
- Morales, J., A. Calvo, and E. Bialystok. 2013. “Working Memory Development in Monolingual and Bilingual Children.” Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 114 (2): 187–202. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2012.09.002.
- Muñoz-Sandoval, A. F., J. Cummins, C. G. Alvarado, and M. L. Ruef. 1998. Bilingual Verbal Ability Tests: Comprehensive Manual. Itasca, IL: Riverside Publishing.
- NCES (National Center for Education Statistics). 2015. The condition of education 2015 (NCES 2015-144). Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Accessed October, 26 2018. https://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2015144.
- Ofoe, L. C., J. D. Anderson, and K. Ntourou. 2018. “Short-term Memory, Inhibition, and Attention in Developmental Stuttering: A Meta-analysis.” Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research 61 (7): 1626–1648.
- Paap, K. R., and Z. I. Greenberg. 2013. “There is no Coherent Evidence for a Bilingual Advantage in Executive Processing.” Cognitive Psychology 66 (2): 232–258. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogpsych.2012.12.002.
- Park, M., J. Zong, and J. Batalova. 2018. Growing Superdiversity among Young U.S. Dual Language Learners and Its Implications. Washington, DC: Migration Policy Institute.
- Powers, D. E., and A. Powers. 2015. “The Incremental Contribution of TOEIC® Listening, Reading, Speaking, and Writing Tests to Predicting Performance on Real-Life English Language Tasks.” Language Testing 32 (2): 151–167.
- Prior, A., N. Goldwasser, R. Ravet-Hirsh, and M. Schwartz. 2016. “Executive Functions in Bilingual Children: Is There a Role for Language Balance?” In Cognitive Control and Consequences in the Multilingual Mind, edited by J. W. Schwieter, 323–350. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing.
- Prior, A., and T. H. Gollan. 2011. “Good Language-Switchers are Good Task-Switchers: Evidence From Spanish–English and Mandarin–English Bilinguals.” Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society 17 (4): 682–691. doi:https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617711000580.
- Qualtrics, I. 2013. Qualtrics. Provo, UT, USA.
- Ransdell, S., M. R. Arecco, and C. M. Levy. 2001. “Bilingual Long-Term Working Memory: The Effects of Working Memory Loads on Writingquality and Fluency.” Applied Psycholinguistics 22 (1): 113–128.
- Ransdell, S., C. M. Levy, and R. T. Kellogg. 2002. “The Structure of Writing Processes as Revealed by Secondary Task Demands.” L1-Educational Studies in Language and Literature 2 (2): 141–163.
- Santillán, J., and A. Khurana. 2017. “Developmental Associations between Bilingual Experience and Inhibitory Control Trajectories in Head Start Children.” Developmental Science 21 (4): 1–12. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12624.
- Smith, S. A., J. G. Briggs, H. Pothier, and J. N. Garcia. 2017. “‘Mental Workouts for Couch Potatoes’: Executive Function Variation among Spanish–English Bilingual Young Adults.” Applied Linguistics. doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amx038.
- Soveri, A., A. Rodriguez-Fornells, and M. Laine. 2011. “Is There a Relationship Between Language Switching and Executive Functions in Bilingualism? Introducing a Within Group Analysis Approach.” Frontiers in Psychology 2 (183): 1–8. doi:https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00183.
- Stroop, J. R. (1935). “Studies of Interference in Serial Verbal Reactions.” Journal of Experimental Psychology 18 (6): 643.
- Superville, D. 2019. Is There a Path to Desegregated Schools? Education Week, January 8. Accessed January 8 2019. https://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2019/01/09/is-there-a-path-to-desegregated-schools.html.
- Surrain, S., and G. Luk. 2017. “Describing Bilinguals: A Systematic Review of Labels and Descriptions Used in the Literature between 2005–2015.” Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 22 (2): 401–415.
- Swanson, H. L., X. Zheng, and O. Jerman. 2009. “Working Memory, Short-Term Memory, and Reading Disabilities: A Selective Meta-Analysis of the Literature.” Journal of Learning Disabilities 42 (3): 260–287. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219409331958.
- Thomas-Sunesson, D., K. Hakuta, and E. Bialystok. 2018. “Degree of Bilingualism Modifies Executive Control in Hispanic Children in the USA.” International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 21 (2): 197–206. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2016.1148114.
- Turner, M. L., and R. W. Engle. 1989. “Is Working Memory Capacity Task Dependent?” Journal of Memory and Language 28 (2): 127–154.
- U.S. Census Bureau. 2014. Percentage of 18- to 24-year-olds enrolled in degree granting institutions, by level of institution and sex and race/ethnicity of student: 1967 through 2013. Accessed October, 26 2018. http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d14/tables/dt14_302.60.asp?current=yes.
- Verhagen, J., H. Mulder, and P. P. Leseman. 2017. “Effects of Home Language Environment on Inhibitory Control in Bilingual Three-Year-old Children.” Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 20 (1): 114–127. doi:https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728915000590.
- Wechsler, D., D. L. Coalson, and S. E. Raiford. 2008. WAIS-IV. Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale: Fourth Edition. Technical and interpretative manual. San Antonio, TX: NCS Pearson.
- Wu, Y. J., and G. Thierry. 2013. “Fast Modulation of Executive Function by Language Context in Bilinguals.” Journal of Neuroscience 33 (33): 13533–13537. doi:https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4760-12.2013.
- Yow, W. Q., and X. Li. 2015. “Balanced Bilingualism and Early Age of Second Language Acquisition as the Underlying Mechanisms of a Bilingual Executive Control Advantage: Why Variations in Bilingual Experiences Matter.” Frontiers in Psychology 6 (164): 1–12. doi:https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00164.