Working memory and multilingualism: balanced language proficiency predicts verbal working memory

References

• Adesope, O. O., T. Lavin, T. Thompson, and C. Ungerleider. 2010. “A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of the Cognitive Correlates of Bilingualism.” Review of Educational Research 80 (2): 207–245.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alloway, T. P. 2007. Automated Working Memory Assessment Manual. London: Pearson Assessment.
   Google Scholar
• Alloway, T. P., S. E. Gathercole, H. Kirkwood, and J. Elliott. 2008. “Evaluating the Validity of the Automated Working Memory Assessment.” Educational Psychology 28 (7): 725–734.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baddeley, A. D. 2000. “The Episodic Buffer: A new Component of Working Memory?” Trends in Cognitive Sciences 4 (11): 417–423.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baddeley, A. D., M. W. Eysenck, and M. C. Anderson. 2009. Memory. London: Psychology Press.
   Google Scholar
• Bialystok, E. 2017. “The Bilingual Adaptation: How Minds Accommodate Experience.” Psychological Bulletin 143 (3): 233–262.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bialystok, E., F. I. Craik, and G. Luk. 2012. “Bilingualism: Consequences for Mind and Brain.” Trends in Cognitive Sciences 16 (4): 240–250.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blom, E., A. C. Kuntay, M. Messer, J. Verhagen, and P. Leseman. 2014. “The Benefits of Being Bilingual: Working Memory in Bilingual Turkish-Dutch Children.” Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 128: 105–119.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brito, N. H., N. Sebastian-Galles, and R. Barr. 2015. “Differences in Language Exposure and its Effects on Memory Flexibility in Monolingual, Bilingual, and Trilingual Infants.” Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 18 (4): 670–682.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chiat, S. 2015. “Nonword Repetition.” In Methods for Assessing Multilingual Children: Disentangling Bilingualism from Language Impairment, edited by S. Armon-Lotem, J. de Jong, and N. Meir, 125–150. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
   Google Scholar
• Cockcroft, K., and S. Laher. 2018. “Assessing Language Proficiency in Multilingual South African Students Using the Language Experience and Proficiency Questionnaire (LEAP-Q).” In Teaching Psychology Around the World (Vol. 4), edited by G. J. Rich, A. Padilla-López, L. K. de Souza, L. Zinkiewicz, J. Taylor and J. L. S. Binti Jaafar, 212–235. New York: Springer Press.
   Google Scholar
• Cockcroft, K., M. Wigdorowitz, and L. Liversage. 2019. “A Multilingual Advantage in the Components of Working Memory.” Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 22 (1): 1–15.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cowan, N. 2008. “What are the Differences Between Long-term, Short-term, and Working Memory?” Progress in Brain Research 169: 323–338.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Bot, K. 2004. “The Multilingual Lexicon: Modelling Selection and Control.” International Journal of Multilingualism 1 (1): 17–32.
   Google Scholar
• Diamond, J. 2010. “The Benefits of Multilingualism.” Science 330 (6002): 332–333.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Engel de Abreu, P. M. J. 2011. “Working Memory in Multilingual Children: Is There a Bilingual Effect?” Memory (Hove, England) 19 (5): 529–537.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fernald, A., V. A. Marchman, and A. Weisleder. 2013. “SES Differences in Language Processing Skill and Vocabulary are Evident at 18 Months.” Developmental Science 16 (2): 234–248.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gathercole, V. C. M., E. M. Thomas, I. Kennedy, C. Prys, N. Young, N. Viñas-Guasch, E. J. Roberts, E. K. Hughes, and L. Jones. 2014. “Does Language Dominance Affect Cognitive Performance in Bilinguals? Lifespan Evidence from Preschoolers Through Older Adults on Card Sorting, Simon, and Metalinguistic Tasks.” Frontiers in Psychology 5: 11.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goriot, C., M. Broersma, J. M. McQueen, S. Unsworth, and R. van Hout. 2018. “Language Balance and Switching Ability in Children Acquiring English as a Second Language.” Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 173: 168–186.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Green, D. W. 2018. “Language Control and Code-Switching.” Languages 3 (2): 8.
   Google Scholar
• Grosjean, F. 2010. Bilingual. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Grundy, J. G., and K. Timmer. 2017. “Bilingualism and Working Memory Capacity: A Comprehensive Meta-analysis.” Second Language Research 33 (3): 325–340.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Halsband, U. 2006. “Bilingual and Multilingual Language Processing.” Journal of Physiology-Paris 99 (4): 355–369.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Heidlmayr, K., S. Moutier, B. Hemforth, C. Courtin, R. Tanzmeister, and F. Isel. 2014. “Successive Bilingualism and Executive Functions: The Effect of Second Language use on Inhibitory Control in a Behavioural Stroop Colour Word Task.” Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 17 (3): 630–645.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huang, T., H. Loerts, and R. Steinkrauss. 2020. “The Impact of Second- and Third-language Learning on Language Aptitude and Working Memory.” International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism. https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2019.1703894
   Google Scholar
• Huang, T., R. Steinkrauss, and M. Verspoor. 2020. “Learning an L2 and L3 at the Same Time: Help or Hinder?” International Journal of Multilingualism. https://doi.org/10.1080/14790718.2020.1779726
   Google Scholar
• Incera, S., and C. T. McLennan. 2017. “Bilingualism and age are Continuous Variables That Influence Executive Function.” Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition 25 (3): 1–21.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones, G. 2016. “The Influence of Children’s Exposure to Language From Two to Six Years: The Case of Nonword Repetition.” Cognition 153: 79–88.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones, G., and B. Macken. 2015. “Questioning Short-Term Memory and its Measurement: Why Digit Span Measures Long-term Associative Learning.” Cognition 144: 1–13.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones, G., and B. Macken. 2018. “Long-term Associative Learning Predicts Verbal Short-term Memory Performance.” Memory and Cognition 46 (2): 216–229.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaushanskaya, M., and V. Marian. 2009. “The Bilingual Advantage in Novel Word Learning.” Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 16 (4): 705–710.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kavé, G., N. Eyal, A. Shorek, and J. Cohen-Mansfield. 2008. “Multilingualism and Cognitive State in the Oldest old.” Psychology and Aging 23 (1): 70–78.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lehtonen, M., A. Soveri, A. Laine, J. Järvenpää, A. de Bruin, and J. Antfolk. 2018. “Is Bilingualism Associated with Enhanced Executive Functioning in Adults? A Meta-analytic Review.” Psychological Bulletin 144 (4): 394–425.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leibbrandt, M., A. Finn, and I. Woolard. 2012. “Describing and Decomposing Post-apartheid Income Inequality in South Africa.” Development Southern Africa 29 (1): 19–34.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li, W. 2015. “Conceptual and Methodological Issues in Bilingualism and Multilingualism.” In The Handbook of Bilingualism and Multilingualism, edited by T. K. Bhatia and W. C. Ritchie, 26–51. Hoboken, NJ: Blackwell.
   Google Scholar
• Luk, G., and E. Bialystok. 2013. “Bilingualism is not a Categorical Variable: Interaction Between Language Proficiency and Usage.” Journal of Cognitive Psychology 25 (5): 605–621.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luk, G., E. De Sa, and E. Bialystok. 2011. “Is There a Relation Between Onset age of Bilingualism and Enhancement of Cognitive Control?” Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 14 (4): 588–595.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marian, V., H. K. Blumenfeld, and M. Kaushanskaya. 2007. “The Language Experience and Proficiency Questionnaire (LEAP-Q): Assessing Language Profiles in Bilinguals and Multilinguals.” Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research 50 (4): 940–967.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miyake, A., N. P. Friedman, M. J. Emerson, A. H. Witzki, A. Howerter, and T. D. Wager. 2000. “The Unity and Diversity of Executive Functions and Their Contributions to Complex “Frontal Lobe” Tasks: A Latent Variable Analysis.” Cognitive Psychology 41 (1): 49–100.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morales, J., A. Calvo, and E. Bialystok. 2013. “Working Memory Development in Monolingual and Bilingual Children.” Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 114 (2): 187–202.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morrison, C., F. Kamal, and V. Taler. 2019. “The Influence of Bilingualism on Working Memory Event-Related Potentials.” Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 22 (1): 191–199.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paap, K. R., H. A. Johnson, and O. Sawi. 2015. “Bilingual Advantages in Executive Functioning Either do not Exist or are Restricted to Very Specific and Undetermined Circumstances.” Cortex 69: 265–278.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pelham, S. D., and L. Abrams. 2014. “Cognitive Advantages and Disadvantages in Early and Late Bilinguals.” Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 40 (2): 313–325.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Poarch, G. J., and J. G. van Hell. 2012. “Executive Functions and Inhibitory Control in Multilingual Children: Evidence from Second-language Learners, Bilinguals, and Trilinguals.” Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 113 (4): 535–551.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ransdell, S., M. Barbier, and T. Niit. 2006. “Metacognitions About Language Skill and Working Memory among Monolingual and Bilingual College Students: When Does Multilingualism Matter?” International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 9 (6): 728–741.
   Google Scholar
• Riggs, N. R., H. Shin, J. B. Unger, D. Spruijt-Metz, and M. A. Pentz. 2014. “Prospective Associations Between Bilingualism and Executive Function in Latino Children: Sustained Effects While Controlling for Biculturalism.” Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health 16 (5): 914–921.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rudwick, S. 2004. “‘Zulu, We Need [It] for Our Culture’: Umlazi Adolescents in the Post-apartheid State.” Southern African Linguistics and Applied Language Studies 22 (3-4): 159–172.
   Google Scholar
• Sabourin, L., and S. Vinerte. 2018. “Cognitive Control among Immersed Bilinguals: Considering Differences in Linguistic and non-Linguistic Processing.” Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 22 (3): 1–16.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• South African Audience Research Foundation [SAARF]. 2001. Living Standards Measure. Accessed April 9, 2019. http://www.saarf.co.za/lsm/lsms.asp
   Google Scholar
• Thomas-Sunesson, D., K. Hakuta, and E. Bialystok. 2018. “Degree of Bilingualism Modifies Executive Control in Hispanic Children in the USA.” International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 21 (2): 197–206.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thorn, A. S., S. E. Gathercole, and C. R. Frankish. 2002. “Language Familiarity Effects in Short-term Memory: The Role of Output Delay and Long-term Knowledge.” The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A 55 (4): 1363–1383.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Valian, V. 2015. “Bilingualism and Cognition.” Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 18 (1): 3–24.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vega, C., and M. Fernandez. 2011. “Errors on the WCST Correlate with Language Proficiency Scores in Spanish-English Bilingual Children.” Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology 26 (2): 158–164.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yoo, J., and M. Kaushanskaya. 2012. “Phonological Memory in Bilinguals and Monolinguals.” Memory & Cognition 40 (8): 1314–1330.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yow, W. Q., and X. Li. 2015. “Balanced Bilingualism and Early age of Second Language Acquisition as the Mechanisms of a Bilingual Executive Control Advantage: Why Variations in Bilingual Experiences Matter.” Frontiers in Psychology 6: 164.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar