Media use predictors of online political efficacy among Internet users in five Arab countries

References

• Abdalla, A. (2008).The student movement and national politics in Egypt: 1923–1973. Egypt: American University in Cairo Press.
   Google Scholar
• Amnesty International. (2014a). Qatar: New cybercrimes law endangers freedom of expression. Retrieved February 13, 2016, from https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2014/09/qatar-new-cybercrimes-law-endangers-freedom-expression/
   Google Scholar
• Amnesty International. (2014b). UAE: Ruthless crackdown on dissent exposes ‘ugly reality’ beneath facade of glitz and glamour. Retrieved February 9, 2016, from https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2014/11/U.A.E.-ruthless-crackdown-dissent-exposes-ugly-reality-beneath-fa-ade-glitz-and-glamour/
   Google Scholar
• Barnett, S. (2008). On the road to self-destruction. British Journalism Review, 19(2), 5–13. doi: 10.1177/0956474808094193
   Google Scholar
• Bayat, A. (2013). The Arab spring and its surprises. Development and Change, 44(3), 587–601. doi: 10.1111/dech.12030
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BBC Middle East Country Profiles. (2015). Retrieved February 5, 2016, from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/country_profiles/default.stm
   Google Scholar
• Black, I. (2013). Saudi digital generation takes on Twitter, YouTube … and authorities. The Guardian. Retrieved January 21, 2016, from http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/dec/17/saudi-arabia-digital-twitter-social-media-islam
   Google Scholar
• Black, I. (2015). Saudi Arabia’s King Abdullah dies at 90. The Guardian. Retrieved February 9, 2016, from http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jan/22/saudi-arabia-king-abdullah-dies
   Google Scholar
• Breuer, A., & Groshek, J. (2014). Online media and offline empowerment in post-rebellion Tunisia: An analysis of Internet use during democratic transition. Journal of Information Technology & Politics, 11(1), 25–44. doi: 10.1080/19331681.2013.850464
   Google Scholar
• Campbell, A., Gurin, G., & Miller, W. E. (1954). The voter decides. Oxford: Row, Peterson.
   Google Scholar
• CIA World Factbook. (2015). Middle East: The United Arab Emirates. Retrieved February 9, 2016, from https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ae.html
   Google Scholar
• Colleoni, E., Rozza, A., & Arvidsson, A. (2014). Echo chamber or public sphere? Predicting political orientation and measuring political homophily in twitter using big data. Journal of Communication, 64(2), 317–332. doi: 10.1111/jcom.12084
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Committee to Protect Journalists. (2014, September 17). New cybercrime law could have serious consequences for press freedom in Qatar. Retrieved February 14, 2016, from https://cpj.org/2014/09/new-cybercrime-law-could-have-serious-consequences.php
   Google Scholar
• Cottle, S. (2011). Media and the Arab uprisings of 2011: Research notes. Journalism, 12(5), 647–659. doi: 10.1177/1464884911410017
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Craig, S. C., & Maggiotto, M. A. (1982). Measuring political efficacy. Political Methodology, 8(3), 85–109. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/25791157
   Google Scholar
• Credit Suisse. (2014). Global wealth databook 2014. Retrieved February 10, 2016, from https://publications.credit-suisse.com/tasks/render/file/?fileID=5521F296-D460-2B88-081889DB12817E02
   Google Scholar
• Dennis, E. E., Martin, J. D., & Wood, R. (2013). Media use in the Middle East: A six-nation survey. Northwestern University in Qatar. Retrieved March 30, 2015, from http://menamediasurvey.northwestern.edu
   Google Scholar
• Dennis, E. E., Martin, J. D., & Wood, R. (2015). Media use in the Middle East: A six-nation survey. Northwestern University in Qatar. Retrieved November 31, 2015, from www.mideastmedia.org
   Google Scholar
• Diop, A., Jardina, A. E., Tessler, M., & Wittrock, J. (2016). Antecedents of trust among citizens and non-citizens in Qatar. Journal of International Migration and Integration, 1–20.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Finkel, S. E. (1987). The effects of participation on political efficacy and political support: Evidence from a West German panel. The Journal of Politics, 49(02), 441–464. doi: 10.2307/2131308
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gall, C. (2016, February 9). Tunisian town simmers with unrest over lack of jobs. The International New York Times. A8.
   Google Scholar
• Gil de Zúñiga, H., Jung, N., & Valenzuela, S. (2012). Social media use for news and individuals’ social capital, civic engagement and political participation. Journal of Computer Mediated Communication, 17(3), 319–336. doi: 10.1111/j.1083-6101.2012.01574.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Google. Consumer Barometer. Retrieved February 13, 2016, from https://www.consumerbarometer.com/en/
   Google Scholar
• “Guttering flame”. (2015, February 14). The Economist. Retrieved January 22, 2016, from http://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21643192-after-brief-flickering-free-speech-being-snuffed-out-guttering-flame
   Google Scholar
• Harfouche, A., & Robbin, A. (2012). Inhibitors and enablers of public e-services in Lebanon. Journal of Organizational and End User Computing, 24(3), 45–68. doi: 10.4018/joeuc.2012070103
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hirst, D. (2010). Beware of small states: Lebanon, battleground of the Middle East. London: Faber and Faber.
   Google Scholar
• Howard, P. N., & Hussain, M. M. (2013). Democracy’s fourth wave? Digital media and the Arab spring. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• ictQATAR. (2014). The attitudes of online users in the MENA region to Cybersafety, Security, and Data Privacy. Retrieved February 7, 2016, from http://www.ictqatar.qa/sites/default/files/cybersafety_security_and_data_privacy_-_report_summary_1.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Isherwood, T. (2008). A new direction or more of the same? Political blogging in Egypt. Arab Media & Society, 6, 1–17.
   Google Scholar
• Johnson, T. J., & Kaye, B. K. (2015). Reasons to believe: Influence of credibility on motivations for using social networks. Computers in Human Behavior, 50, 544–555. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2015.04.002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kamrava, M. (2013). Qatar: Small state, big politics. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Kassem, S. (2013). Young Egyptian activists’ perceptions of the potential of social media for mobilization. York University doctoral dissertation. Retrieved January 24, 2016, from http://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/4957/
   Google Scholar
• Katz, E., Blumler, J. G., & Gurevitch, M. (1973). Uses and gratifications research. Public Opinion Quarterly, 37(4), 509–523. doi: 10.1086/268109
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Katzman, K. (2013). The United Arab Emirates (U.A.E.): issues for us policy*. Current Politics and Economics of the Middle East, 4(4), 639–675.
   Google Scholar
• Kaye, B. K., & Johnson, T. J. (2002). Online and in the know: Uses and gratifications of the web for political information. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 46(1), 54–71. doi: 10.1207/s15506878jobem4601_4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kemp, S. (2015). Digital, Social and Mobile Worldwide in 2015. Special Reports. Retrieved from http://wearesocial.com/uk/special-reports/digital-social-mobile-worldwide-2015
   Google Scholar
• Kenski, K., & Stroud, N. J. (2006). Connections between internet use and political efficacy, knowledge, and participation. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 50(2), 173–192. doi: 10.1207/s15506878jobem5002_1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khalaf, M. C. (2010). Lebanon. In S. Kelly & J. Breslin (Eds.), Women’s rights in the Middle East and North Africa: Progress amid resistance (249–281). New York, NY: Rowman & Littlefield.
   Google Scholar
• Khalil J. F. (2013) Youth-generated media: A case of blogging and Arab youth cultural politics. Television & New Media, 14(4), 338–350. doi: 10.1177/1527476412463449
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klapper, J. T. (1963). Mass communication research: An old road re-surveyed. Public Opinion Quarterly, 27, 515–527. doi: 10.1086/267201
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee, K. M. (2006). Effects of internet use on college students’ political efficacy. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 9(4), 415–422. doi: 10.1089/cpb.2006.9.415
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lynch, M. (2007). Blogging the new Arab public: Arab blogs’ political influence will grow. Arab Media and Society, 1–30.
   Google Scholar
• Marks, M. (2016, February 3). Tunisia opts for an inclusive new government. The Washington Post. Retrieved February 9, 2016, from https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/monkey-cage/wp/2015/02/03/tunisia-opts-for-an-inclusive-new-government/
   Google Scholar
• Martin, J. D. & Schoenbach, K. (2015). Who blogs in Arab countries? Predictors of blogging in six Arab countries. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Communication Association, San Juan, Puerto Rico, May 23.
   Google Scholar
• Martin, J. D., Martins, R. J., & Wood, R. (2015). Desire for Cultural Preservation as a Predictor of Support for Entertainment Media Censorship in Saudi Arabia, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates. International Journal of Communication, 10, 3400–3422.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller, M. M., & Reese, S. D. (1982). Media dependency as interaction: Effects of exposure and reliance on political activity and efficacy. Communication Research, 9(2), 227–248. doi: 10.1177/009365082009002003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Min, S. J. (2010). From the digital divide to the democratic divide: Internet skills, political interest, and the second-level digital divide in political internet use. Journal of Information Technology & Politics, 7(1), 22–35. doi: 10.1080/19331680903109402
   Google Scholar
• Mohammed bin Rashid School of Government. (2015). Arab Social Media Report. Retrieved February 13, 2016, from http://www.wpp.com/govtpractice/~/media/wppgov/files/arabsocialmediareport-2015.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Moeller, J., de Vreese, C., Esser, F., & Kunz, R. (2014). Pathway to political participation: The influence of online and offline news media on Internal efficacy and turnout of first-time voters. American Behavioral Scientist, 58(5), 689–700. doi: 10.1177/0002764213515220
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Newhagen, J. E. (1994). Media use and political efficacy: The suburbanization of race and class. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 45(6), 386–394. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1097-4571(199407)45:6<386::AID-ASI4>3.0.CO;2-9
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ognyanova, K., & Ball-Rokeach, S. J. (2015). Political efficacy on the internet: A media system dependency approach. Communication and Information Technologies Annual (Studies in Media and Communications, Volume 9) Emerald Group Publishing Limited, 9, 3–27.
   Google Scholar
• Parent, M., Vandebeek, C. A., & Gemino, A. C. (2005). Building citizen trust through e-government. Government Information Quarterly, 22(4), 720–736. doi: 10.1016/j.giq.2005.10.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park, N., Kee, K. F., & Valenzuela, S. (2009). Being immersed in social networking environment: Facebook groups, uses and gratifications, and social outcomes. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 12(6), 729–733. doi: 10.1089/cpb.2009.0003
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Park, C. S., & Karan. (2014). Unravelling the relationships between exposure to heterogeneity, political efficacy, and political participation: A mediation model approach. Asian Journal of Communication, 24(4). doi: 10.1080/01292986.2014.892146
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pinkleton, B. E., & Austin, E. W. (2001). Individual motivations, perceived media importance, and political disaffection. Political Communication, 18(3), 321–334. doi: 10.1080/10584600152400365
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pinkleton, B. E., & Austin, E. W. (2002). Exploring relationships among media use frequency, perceived media importance, and media satisfaction in political disaffection and efficacy. Mass Communication & Society, 5(2), 141–163. doi: 10.1207/S15327825MCS0502_3
   Google Scholar
• Pinkleton, B. E., Austin, E. W., & Fortman, K. K. (1998). Relationships of media use and political disaffection to political efficacy and voting behavior. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 42(1), 34–49. doi: 10.1080/08838159809364433
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pinkleton, B. E., Austin, E. W., Zhou, Y., Willoughby, J. F., & Reiser, M. (2012). Perceptions of news media, external efficacy, and public affairs apathy in political decision making and disaffection. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 89(1), 23–39. doi: 10.1177/1077699011428586
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rapanta, C., & Badran, D. (2015). Same but different: Perceptions of interpersonal arguing in two Arabic populations (U.A.E. & Lebanon). Journal of Media Critiques [JMC], 1(2) 119–131. doi: 10.17349/jmc115109
   Google Scholar
• Ruggiero, T. E. (2000). Uses and gratifications theory in the 21st century. Mass Communication and Society, 3(1), 3–37. doi: 10.1207/S15327825MCS0301_02
   Google Scholar
• Soengas-Pérez, X. (2013). The role of the internet and social networks in the Arab uprisings an alternative to official press censorship. Comunicar, 21(41), 147–155. doi: 10.3916/C41-2013-14
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sundar, S. S., & Limperos, A. M. (2013). Uses and grats 2.0: New gratifications for new media. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 57(4), 504–525. doi: 10.1080/08838151.2013.845827
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tewksbury, D., Hals, M. L., & Bibart, A. (2008). The efficacy of news browsing: The relationship of news consumption style to social and political efficacy. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 85(2), 257–272. doi: 10.1177/107769900808500203
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Transparency International. (2015). Corruption Perceptions Index 2015. Retrieved February 10, 2016, from http://www.transparency.org/cpi2015
   Google Scholar
• Velasquez, A., & LaRose, R. (2015). Social media for social change: Social media political efficacy and activism in student activist groups. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 59(3), 456–474. doi: 10.1080/08838151.2015.1054998
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang, S.-I. (2007). Political use of the internet, political attitudes and political participation. Asian Journal of Communication, 17(4), 381–395. doi: 10.1080/01292980701636993
   Google Scholar
• Wojcieszak, M., & Smith, B. (2014). Will politics be tweeted? New media use by Iranian youth in 2011. New Media & Society, 16(1), 91–109. doi: 10.1177/1461444813479594
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolfsfeld, G., Segev, E., & Sheafer, T. (2013). Social media and the Arab spring: Politics comes first. The International Journal of Press/Politics, 18(2), 115–137. doi: 10.1177/1940161212471716
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xu, Q., & Qi, L. (2014). Use of SNSs, political efficacy, and civic engagement among Chinese college students: Effects of gratifications and network size. International Journal of Interactive Communication Systems and Technologies, 4(1), 15–30. doi: 10.4018/ijicst.2014010102
   Google Scholar
• York, J. (2012). Arab digital vanguard: How a decade of blogging contributed to a year of revolution. The Georgetown Journal of International Affairs, 13, 33–42.
   Google Scholar
• Zhou, Y., & Pinkleton, B. E. (2012). Modeling the effects of political information source use and online expression on young adults’ political efficacy. Mass Communication and Society, 15(6), 813–830. doi: 10.1080/15205436.2011.622064
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zoepf, K. (2016). Excellent daughters: The secret lives of young women who are transforming the Arab world. New York, NY: Penguin.
   Google Scholar