Office of the citizen: a qualitative analysis of Twitter activity during the Lekki shooting in Nigeria’s #EndSARS protests

References

• Ahmed, W., Bath, P. A., & Demartini, G. (2017). Using Twitter as a data source: An overview of ethical, legal and methodological challenges. In K. Woodfield (Ed.), Ethics of online research. Advances in research ethics and integrity (1st ed., pp. 79–107). Emerald Publication.
   Google Scholar
• Ahmed, W., & Lugovic, S. (2019). Social media analytics: Analysis and visualisation of news diffusion using NodeXL. Online Information Review, 43(1), 149–160. https://doi.org/10.1108/OIR-03-2018-0093
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akinlabi, O. M. (2017). Do the police really serve and protect the public? Police deviance and public cynicism towards the law in Nigeria. Criminology and Criminal Justice, 17(2), 158–174. https://doi.org/10.1177/1748895816659906
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akpojivi, U. (2019). I won't be silent anymore: Hashtag activism in Nigeria. Communication, 45(4), 19–43. https://doi.org/10.1080/02500167.2019.1700292
   Google Scholar
• Aljazeera. (2020, October 28). Aljazeera. Retrieved February 15, 2021, from Aljazeera: https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/10/28/nigerias-military-admits-to-be-at-shooting-but-denies-shooting
   Google Scholar
• Amaza, M. (2020, October 23). Heinrich Boll Stiftung. Retrieved December 14, 2020, from https://ng.boell.org/en/2020/10/23/endsars-protests-might-be-birth-new-nigeria
   Google Scholar
• Amnesty International. (2020, October 21). Amnesty International. Retrieved February 15, 2021, from Amnesty International: https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2020/10/killing-of-endsars-protesters-by-the-military-must-be-investigated/
   Google Scholar
• Angus, D., Rintel, S., & Wiles, J. (2013). Making sense of big text: A visual-first approach for analysing text data using Leximancer and discursis. International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 16(3), 261–267. https://doi.org/10.1080/13645579.2013.774186
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bennett, W. L. (2012). The personalization of politics: Political identity, social media, and changing patterns of participation. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political Science, 644(1), 20–39. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716212451428
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bennett, W. L., & Segerberg, A. (2012). The logic of connective action. Information, Communication & Society, 15(5), 739–768. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2012.670661
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bimber, B., Flanagin, A. J., & Stohl, C. (2005). Reconceptualizing collective action in the contemporary media environment. Communication Theory, 15(4), 365–388. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2885.2005.tb00340.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bosch, T., & Mutsvairo, B. (2017). Pictures, protests and politics: Mapping Twitter images during South Africa's fees must fall campaign. African Journalism Studies, 38(2), 71–89. https://doi.org/10.1080/23743670.2017.1368869
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brochado, A., Rita, P., Oliveira, C., & Oliveira, F. (2019). Airline passengers’ perceptions of service quality: Themes in online reviews. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 31(2), 855–873. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJCHM-09-2017-0572
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burt, R. S. (2001). The social capital of structural holes. In M. F. Guillen, R. Collins, P. England, & M. Meyer (Eds.), New directions in economic sociology (pp. 202–250). Russell Sage Foundation.
   Google Scholar
• Castells, M. (2010). The rise of the network society. Wiley-Blackwell.
   Google Scholar
• Castells, M. (2013). Communication power. Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Castells, M. (2015). Networks of outrage and hope: Social movements in the internet age. Polity Press.
   Google Scholar
• Causadias, J. M., & Umaña-Taylor, A. J. (2018). Reframing marginalization and youth development: Introduction to the special issue. American Psychologist, 73(6), 707–712. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000336
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cretchley, J., Gallois, C., Chenery, H., & Smith, A. (2010). Conversations between carers and people with schizophrenia: A qualitative analysis using Leximancer. Qualitative Health Research, 20(12), 1611–1628. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732310378297
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cretchley, J., Rooney, D., & Gallois, C. (2010). Mapping a 40-year history with Leximancer: Themes and concepts in the journal of cross-cultural psychology. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 41(3), 318–328. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022110366105
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Daniels, G. (2016). Scrutinizing hashtag activism in the #MustFall protests in South Africa in 2015. In B. Mutsvairo (Ed.), Digital activism in the social media era (pp. 175–193). Palgrave MacMillan.
   Google Scholar
• Dessewffy, T., & Nagy, Z. (2016). Born in Facebook: The refugee crisis and grassroots connective action in Hungary. International Journal of Communication, 10, 2872–2894.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DiMaggio, P., Hargittai, E., Neuman, W. R., & Robinson, J. R. (2001). Social implications of the internet. Annual Review of Sociology, 27(1), 307–336. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.27.1.307
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Earl, J., Hurwitz, H. M., Mesinas, A. M., Tolan, M., & Arlotti, A. (2013). The protest will be tweeted. Information, Communication, & Society, 16(4), 459–478. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2013.777756
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garrett, R. K. (2006). Protest in an information society: A review of literature on social movements and new ICTs. Information, Communication & Society, 9(2), 202–224. https://doi.org/10.1080/13691180600630773
   Google Scholar
• González-Bailón, S., & Wang, N. (2016). Networked discontent: The anatomy of protest campaigns in social media. Social Networks, 44, 95–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socnet.2015.07.003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gukurume, S. (2017). #Thisflag and #ThisGown cyber protests in Zimbabwe; reclaiming political space. African Journalism Studies, 38(2), 49–70. https://doi.org/10.1080/23743670.2017.1354052
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hansen, D., Shneiderman, B., & Smith, M. A. (2011). Analyzing social media networks with NodeXL: Insights from a connected world. Elsevier.
   Google Scholar
• Haperen, S. V., Nicholls, W., & Uitermark, J. (2018). Building protest online: Engagement with the digitally networked #not1more protest campaign on twitter. Social Movement Studies, 17(4), 408–423. https://doi.org/10.1080/14742837.2018.1434499
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harlow, S., Kilgo, D. K., Salaverría, R., & García-Perdomo, V. (2020). Is the whole world watching? Building a typology of protest coverage on social media from around the world. Journalism Studies, 21, 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/1461670X.2020.1776144
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harper, C. (2020, October 16). Yahoo News. Retrieved 21 February, 2021, from Yahoo News: https://in.news.yahoo.com/nigerian-banks-shut-them-activists-145501135.html?guce_referrer=aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cuZ29vZ2xlLmNvbS8&guce_referrer_sig=AQAAAC3n76txFa7_PiWjA3yaKBWZe-iZxFQBdei4FHolXTN21gGbVVeTVdbslo9ukraPJTqsdc9IO3I3lHl5ahGD0Q5BR84My-UAkWfbzvxnPLW7uH-
   Google Scholar
• Hilbert, M., Vásquez, J., Halpern, D., Valenzuela, S., & Arriagada, E. (2016). One step, two step, network step? Complementary perspectives on communication flows in Twittered citizen protests. Social Science Computer Review, 35(4), 441–461. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894439316639561
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Himelboim, I., & Smith, M. A. (2017). NodeXL. In J. Matthes (Ed.), The international encyclopedia of communication research methods (pp. 1–3). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118901731.iecrm0167
   Google Scholar
• Hyndman, B., & Pill, S. (2017). What's in a concept? A Leximancer text mining analysis of physical literacy across the international literature. European Physical Education Review, 24(3), 292–313. https://doi.org/10.1177/1356336X17690312
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ikuteyijo, L., & Rotimi, K. (2014). The image of the Nigerian police: Lessons from history. Journal of Applied Security Research, 9(2), 221–235. https://doi.org/10.1080/19361610.2014.883296
   Google Scholar
• Jones, M. (2020, October 14). BBC. Retrieved December 14, 2020, from https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-54531449
   Google Scholar
• Kazeem, Y. (2020, October 23). Quartz Africa. Retrieved February 15, 2021, from Quartz Africa: https://qz.com/africa/1921822/nigerians-let-down-by-president-buhari-speech-on-endsars-protest/
   Google Scholar
• Leeuw, E. D., Browne, J., & Gleeson, D. (2018). Overlaying structure and frames in policy networks to enable effective boundary spanning. Evidence & Policy, 14(3), 537–547. https://doi.org/10.1332/174426418X15299595767891
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loader, B. D., & Mercea, D. (2011). Networking democracy? Information, Communication, & Society, 14(6), 757–769. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2011.592648
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matei, S. (2011). Book review: Analyzing social media networks with NodeXL. Intl. Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 27(4), 405–408. https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2011.544971
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McAdam, D., McCarthy, J. D., & Zald, M. N. (1996). Comparative perspectives on social movements: Political opportunities, mobilizing structures, and cultural framings. Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• McGarthy, C., Thomas, E. F., Lala, G., Smith, L. G., & Bluic, A.-M. (2014). New technologies, new identities and the growth of mass opposition in the Arab spring. Political Psychology, 35(6), 725–740. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12060
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Milan, S., & Hintz, A. (2013). Networked collective action and the institutionalized policy debate: Bringing cyberactivism to the policy arena? Policy & Internet, 5(1), 7–26. https://doi.org/10.1002/poi3.20
   Google Scholar
• Moreno-Almeida, C., & Banaji, S. (2019). Digital use and mistrust in the aftermath of the Arab spring: Beyond narratives of liberation and disillusionment. Media, Culture & Society, 41(8), 1125–1141. https://doi.org/10.1177/0163443718823143
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morrison, D. E., Kieran, M., Svennevig, M., & Ventress, S. (2007). Media and values: Intimate transgressions in a changing moral and cultural landscape. Intellect Books.
   Google Scholar
• Ojo, M. O. (2014). The Nigerian police and the search for integrity in the midst of diverse challenges: An effective police management approach. International Journal of Police Science and Management, 16(2), 87–100. https://doi.org/10.1350/ijps.2014.16.2.330
   Google Scholar
• Olabode, S. (2016). Veterans of diaspora activism: An overview of ICT uses among Nigerian migrant network. In A. Karatzogianni, D. Nguyen, & E. Serafinelli (Eds.), The digital transformation of the public sphere (pp. 129–148). Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-50456-2_7
   Google Scholar
• Olaoluwa, A. (2020, December 1). BBC. Retrieved December 14, 2020, from https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-55104025
   Google Scholar
• Olson, M. (1965). The logic of collective action. In C. Calhoun, J. Gerteis, J. Moody, S. Pfaff, & I. Virk (Eds.), Contemporary sociological theory (pp. 124–129). Wiley-Blackwell.
   Google Scholar
• Onuch, O. (2015). Euromaidan protests in Ukraine: Social media versus social networks. Problems of Post-Communism, 62(4), 217–235. https://doi.org/10.1080/10758216.2015.1037676
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Orjinmo, N. (2020, October 21). BBC. Retrieved February 15, 2021, from BBC: https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-54630592
   Google Scholar
• Pond, P., & Lewis, J. (2019). Riots and Twitter: Connective politics, social media and framing discourses in the digital public sphere. Information, Communication, & Society, 22(2), 213–231. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2017.1366539
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rivers, C. M., & Lewis, B. L. (2014). Ethical research standards in the world of big data. F1000Research, 3(38), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.3-38.v2
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Segerberg, A., & Bennett, W. L. (2011). Social media and the organization of collective action: Using Twitter to explore the ecologies of two climate change protests. The Communication Review, 14(3), 197–215. https://doi.org/10.1080/10714421.2011.597250
   Google Scholar
• Shumate, M., & Lipp, J. (2008). Connective collective action online: An examination of the hyperlink network structure of an NGO issue network. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 14(1), 178–201. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1083-6101.2008.01436.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, A. E.. (2003). Automatic extraction of semantic networks from text using Leximancer. NAACL-Demonstrations '03: Proceedings of the 2003 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics on Human Language Technology (pp. 23-24). Edmonton: ACM.
   Google Scholar
• Smith, M. A.. (2013). NodeXL: simple network analysis for social media. International Conference on Collaboration Technologies and Systems (pp. 89-93). San Diego: IEEE. doi:https://doi.org/10.1109/CTS.2013.6567211
   Google Scholar
• Smith, A. E., & Humphreys, M. S. (2006). Evaluation of unsupervised semantic mapping of natural language with Leximancer and concept mapping. Behaviour Research Methods, 38(2), 262–279. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03192778
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, M. A., Shneiderman, B., Milic-Frayling, N., Rodrigues, E. M., Barash, V., Dunne, C., Capone, T., Perer, A., & Gleave, E.. (2009). Analyzing (social media) networks with NodeXL. Fourth International Conference on Communities and Technologies (pp. 255-263). New York: ACM. doi:10.1145/1556460.1556497
   Google Scholar
• SMR Foundation. (2016). SMR foundation. Retrieved December 31, 2020, from SMR foundation: https://www.smrfoundation.org/networks/Twitter-analytics/
   Google Scholar
• Sotiriadou, P., Brouwers, J., & Le, T.-A. (2014). Choosing a qualitative data tool: A comparison of Nvivo and Leximancer. Annals of Leisure Research, 17(2), 218–234. https://doi.org/10.1080/11745398.2014.902292
   Google Scholar
• Thomas, D. A. (2014). Searching for significance in unstructured data: Text mining with Leximancer. European Educational Research Journal, 13(2), 235–256. https://doi.org/10.2304/eerj.2014.13.2.235
   Google Scholar
• Tremayne, M. (2014). Anatomy of protest in the digital era: A network analysis of Twitter and occupy wall street. Social Movement Studies, 13(1), 110–126. https://doi.org/10.1080/14742837.2013.830969
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Trott, V. (2018). Connected feminists: Foregrounding the interpersonal in connective action. Australian Journal of Political Science, 53(1), 116–129. https://doi.org/10.1080/10361146.2017.1416583
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tufekci, Z., & Wilson, C. (2012). Social media and the decision to participate in political protest: Observations from Tahrir square. Journal of Communication, 62(2), 363–379. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2012.01629.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Twitter. (2021). Twitter. https://help.twitter.com/en/rules-and-policies/twitter-api
   Google Scholar
• Ukpe, W. (2020, October 19). nairametrics. Retrieved December 14, 2020, from https://nairametrics.com/2020/10/19/endsars-lagos-inaugurates-8-man-judicial-panel-of-inquiry-and-restitution/
   Google Scholar
• Vromen, A., Xenos, M. A., & Loader, B. (2015). Young people, social media and connective action: From organisational maintenance to everyday political talk. Journal of Youth Studies, 18(1), 80–100. https://doi.org/10.1080/13676261.2014.933198
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vydra, S., & Klievinkb, B. (2019). Techno-optimism and policy-pessimism in the public sector big data debate. Government Information Quarterly, 36(4), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.giq.2019.05.010
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wade, A. G. (2017). New genres of being human: World making through viral blackness. The Black Scholar, 47(3), 33–44. https://doi.org/10.1080/00064246.2017.1330108
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang, C.-J., Wang, P.-P., & Zhu, J. J. (2013). Discussing occupy wall street on Twitter: Longitudinal network analysis of equality, emotion and stability of public discussion. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 16(9), 679–685. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2012.0409
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weinhardt, M. (2021). Big data: Some ethical concerns for social sciences. Social Sciences, 10(2), 36. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci10020036
   Google Scholar
• Wyatt, S., Bier, J., Harris, A., & Heur, B. V. (2013). Participatory knowledge production 2.0: Critical views and experiences. Information, Communication, & Society, 16(2), 153–159. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2012.746382
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xenos, M., Vromen, A., & Loader, B. D. (2014). The great equalizer? Patterns of social media use and youth political engagement in three advanced democracies. Information, Communication, & Society, 17(2), 151–167. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2013.871318
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zaheer, A., & Soda, G. (2009). Network evolution: The origins of structural holes. Administrative Science Quarterly, 54(1), 1–31. https://doi.org/10.2189/asqu.2009.54.1.1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar