830
Views
3
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Articles

Why migrate to earn less? Changing tertiary education, skilled migration and class slippage in an economic downturn

Pages 3131-3149 | Received 24 Feb 2018, Accepted 16 Jan 2020, Published online: 12 Mar 2020

References

  • Allon, Fiona, and Kay Anderson. 2010. “Intimate Encounters: The Embodied Transnationalism of Backpackers and Independent Travellers.” Population, Space and Place 16 (1): 11–22. doi:10.1002/psp.574.
  • Aoyagi, Chie, and Giovanni Ganelli. 2013. "The Path to Higher Growth: Does Revamping Japan’s Dual Labor Market Matter?" Vol. WP/13/202, IMF Working Paper International Monetary Fund. Accessed 31 January 2018. https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WP/Issues/2016/12/31/The-Path-to-Higher-Growth-Does-Revamping-Japans-Dual-Labor-Market-Matter-40974.
  • Arnett, Jeffrey J. 2000. “Emerging Adulthood: A Theory of Development From the Late Teens Through the Twenties.” American Psychologist 55 (5): 469–480. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.55.5.469.
  • Bal, Ellen, and Roos Willems. 2014. “Introduction: Aspiring Migrants, Local Crises and the Imagination of Futures ‘Away From Home’.” Identities 21 (3): 249–258. doi:10.1080/1070289X.2014.858628.
  • Bartolini, Laura, Ruby Gropas, and Anna Triandafyllidou. 2017. “Drivers of Highly Skilled Mobility From Southern Europe: Escaping the Crisis and Emancipating Oneself.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 43 (4): 652–673. doi:10.1080/1369183X.2016.1249048.
  • Benson, Michaela. 2012. “How Culturally Significant Imaginings are Translated Into Lifestyle Migration.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 38 (10): 1681–1696. doi:10.1080/1369183X.2012.711067.
  • Bernier, Bernard. 2011. “Dispossession and Changes in Class Relations in Japan Since 1980.” Critique of Anthropology 31 (2): 108–120. doi:10.1177/0308275X11399972.
  • Bielewska, Agnieszka. 2018. “Game of Labels: Identification of Highly Skilled Migrants.” Identities: 1–19. First published online 19 September. doi:10.1080/1070289X.2018.1522794.
  • Bourdieu, Pierre. 1986. “The Forms of Capital.” In Handbook of Theory and Research for the Sociology of Education, edited by John G. Richardson, 241–258. New York: Greenwood Press.
  • Bourdieu, Pierre, and Jean-Claude Passeron. 1977. Reproduction in Education, Culture and Society. London: Sage.
  • Brinton, Mary C. 1993. Women and the Economic Miracle: Gender and Work in Postwar Japan. Berkeley: University of California Press.
  • Brinton, Mary C. 2008. Ushinawareta ba o sagashite. Translated by C. Ikemura. Tokyo: NTT Shuppan.
  • Brown, Phillip. 2013. “Education, Opportunity and the Prospects for Social Mobility.” British Journal of Sociology of Education 34 (5–6): 678–700. doi:10.1080/01425692.2013.816036.
  • Brown, Phillip, Hugh Lauder, and David Ashton. 2011. The Global Auction: The Broken Promises of Education, Jobs and Incomes. New York: Oxford University Press.
  • Butler, Tim, and Mike Savage, eds. 1995. Social Change and the Middle Classes. Bristol, PA: UCL Press.
  • Cairns, David. 2017. “Migration and Tertiary Educated Youth: A Reflexive View of Mobility Decision-making in an Economic Crisis Context.” Children’s Geographies 15 (4): 413–425.
  • Castles, Stephen. 2000. “International Migration at the Beginning of the Twenty-first Century: Global Trends and Issues.” International Social Science Journal 52 (165): 269–281. doi:10.1111/1468-2451.00258.
  • Cheng, Mariah Mantsun, and Anne L. Kalleberg. 1997. “How Permanent was Permanent Employment? Patterns of Mobility in Japan, 1916–1975.” Work and Occupations 24 (1): 12–32. doi:10.1177/0730888497024001003.
  • Conradson, David, and Alan Latham. 2005a. “Escalator London? A Case Study of New Zealand Tertiary Educated Migrants in a Global City.” Journal of Contemporary European Studies 13 (2): 159–172. doi:10.1080/14782800500212376.
  • Conradson, David, and Alan Latham. 2005b. “Friendship, Networks and Transnationality in a World City: Antipodean Transmigrants in London.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 31 (2): 287–305. doi:10.1080/14782800500212376.
  • Conradson, David, and Alan Latham. 2005c. “Transnational Urbanism: Attending to Everyday Practices and Mobilities.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 31 (2): 227–233.
  • Cook, Emma E. 2014. “Intimate Expectations and Practices: Freeter Relationships and Marriage in Contemporary Japan.” Asian Anthropology 13 (1): 36–51. doi:10.1080/1683478X.2014.883120.
  • Côté, James E. 2014. “Towards a New Political Economy of Youth.” Journal of Youth Studies 17 (4): 527–543. doi:10.1080/13676261.2013.836592.
  • Dalton, Emma, and Laura Dales. 2016. “Online Konkatsu and the Gendered Ideals of Marriage in Contemporary Japan.” Japanese Studies 36 (1): 1–19. doi:10.1080/10371397.2016.1148556.
  • Domínguez-Mujica, Josefina, Ramón Díaz-Hernández, and Juan Parreño-Castellano. 2016. “Migrating Abroad to Get Ahead: The Emigration of Young Spanish Adults During the Financial Crisis (2008–2013).” In Global Change and Human Mobility, edited by Josefina Domínguez-Mujica, 203–223. Singapore: Springer.
  • Erel, Umut. 2010. “Migrating Cultural Capital: Bourdieu in Migration Studies.” Sociology 44 (4): 642–660. doi:10.1177/0038038510369363.
  • Estévez-Abe, Margarita. 2013. “An International Comparison of Gender Equality: Why is the Japanese Gender Gap so Persistent.” Japan Labor Review 10 (2): 82–100.
  • Farrer, James. 2018. “Critical Expatriate Studies: Changing Expatriate Communities in Asia and the Blurring Boundaries of Expatriate Identity.” In Routledge Handbook of Asian Migrations, edited by Gracia Liu-Farrer and Brenda S. A. Yeoh, 196–208. London: Routledge.
  • Farrer, James. 2019. International Migrants in China’s Global City: The New Shanghailanders. New York, NY: Routledge.
  • Fauser, Margit, and Gery Nijenhuis. 2016. “Migrants’ Transnationality, Societal Transformation, and Locality: An Introduction.” Population, Space and Place 22 (4): 336–342. doi:10.1002/psp.1944.
  • Fisch, Michael. 2015. ““Days of Love and Labor”: Remediating the Logic of Labor and Debt in Contemporary Japan.” Positions: Asia Critique 23 (3): 463–486. doi:10.1215/10679847-3125850.
  • Friedman, Sam, and Daniel Laurison. 2019. The Class Celing: Why it Pays to be Privileged. Bristol: Policy Press.
  • Fujita, Yuiko. 2009. Cultural Migrants from Japan: Youth, Media, and Migration in New York and London. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books.
  • Furlong, Andy, Dam Woodman, and Johanna Wyn. 2011. “Changing Times, Changing Perspectives: Reconciling ‘Transition’ and ‘Cultural’ Perspectives on Youth and Young Adulthood.” Journal of Sociology 47 (4): 355–370. doi:10.1177/1440783311420787.
  • Galan, Christian. 2018. “From Youth to Non-adult in Japan: The Role of Education.” In Being Young in Super-aging Japan: Formative Events and Cultural Reactions, edited by Patrick Heinrich and Christian Galan, 32–50. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge.
  • Genda, Yuji, Sachiko Kuroda, and Souichi Ohta. 2015. “Does Downsizing Take a Toll on Retained Staff? An Analysis of Increased Working Hours in the Early 2000s in Japan.” Journal of the Japanese and International Economies 36: 1–24. doi:10.1016/j.jjie.2015.02.003.
  • Goldthorpe, John H. 2016. “Social Class Mobility in Modern Britain: Changing Structure, Constant Process.” Journal of the British Academy 4: 89–111.
  • Goodman, Roger, Yuki Imoto, and Tuukka H. I. Toivonen, eds. 2012. A Sociology of Japanese Youth: From Returnees to NEETs. London: Routledge.
  • Gordon, Andrew. 2002. “The Short Happy Life of the Japanese Middle Class.” In Social Contracts Under Stress: The Middle Classes of America, Europe and Japan at the Turn of the Century, edited by Oliver Zunz, Leonard Schoppa, und Nobuhiro Hiwatari, 108–129. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
  • Gordon, Andrew. 2015. “Making Sense of the Lost Decades: Workplaces and Schools, Men and Women, Young and Old, Rich and Poor.” In Examining Japan’s Lost Decades, edited by Yoichi Funabashi and Barak Kushner, 77–100. London: Routledge.
  • Gordon, Andrew. 2017. “New and Enduring Dual Structures of Employment in Japan: The Rise of Non-Regular Labor, 1980s–2010s.” Social Science Japan Journal 20 (1): 9–36. doi:10.1093/ssjj/jyw042.
  • Gottfried, Heidi. 2008. “Pathways to Economic Security: Gender and Nonstandard Employment in Contemporary Japan.” Social Indicators Research 88: 179–196.
  • Green, Paul. 2015. “Mobility Regimes in Practice: Later-life Westerners and Visa Runs in South-East Asia.” Mobilities 10 (5): 748–763. doi:10.1080/17450101.2014.927203.
  • Heiman, Rachel, Carla Freeman, and Mark Liechty. 2012. The Global Middle Classes: Theorizing Through Ethnography. Edited by Rachel Heiman, Carla Freeman, and Mark Liechty, 1st ed. Santa Fe, NM: SAR Press.
  • Ho, Elaine Lynn-Ee, and David Ley. 2014. ““Middling” Chinese Returnees or Immigrants from Canada? The Ambiguity of Return Migration and Claims to Modernity.” Asian Studies Review 38 (1): 36–52. doi:10.1080/10357823.2013.853167.
  • Hochschild, Arlie with Anne Machung. [1989] 2003. The Second Shift. New York: Penguin Books.
  • Hoffman, Lisa M. 2010. Patriotic Professionalism in Urban China: Fostering Talent. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
  • Hommerich, Carola. 2017. “The Gap as Threat: Status Anxiety in the ‘Middle’.” In Social Inequality in Post-growth Japan: Transformation During Economic and Demographic Stagnation, edited by David Chiavacci and Carola Hommerich, 37–53. London: Routledge.
  • Horváth, István. 2008. “The Culture of Migration of Rural Romanian Youth.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 34 (5): 771–786. doi:10.1080/13691830802106036.
  • Itoh, Mayuko. 2014. “Japanese Migrant Women’s Transnational Gendered Identity Politics in International Marriages in Australia.” Lilith: A Feminist History Journal 20: 48–61.
  • Jaskułowski, Krzysztof. 2017. “Indian Middling Migrants in Wrocław: A Study of Migration Experiences and Strategies.” Asian and Pacific Migration Journal 26 (2): 262–273. doi:10.1177/0117196817705777.
  • Jeffrey, Craig. 2010. Timepass: Youth, Class, and the Politics of Waiting in India. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
  • JETRO (Japan External Trade Organization) Dalian. 2015. “Dairen Style.” Accessed February 2, 2019. https://www.jetro.go.jp/world/reports/2015/07001998.html.
  • Kambayashi, Ryo, and Takao Kato. 2013. “Good Jobs, Bad Jobs, and the Great Recession: Lessons from Japan’s Lost Decade.” Technical Report No. 2013-1, Center for Economic Institutions, Institute of Economic Research, Hitotsubashi University. Accessed January 31, 2019. http://hermes-ir.lib.hit-u.ac.jp/rs/bitstream/10086/28342/1/wp2013-1.pdf.
  • Kambayashi, Ryo, and Takao Kato. 2017. “Long-term Employment and Job Security Over the Past 25 Years: A Comparative Study of Japan and the United States.” ILR Review 70 (2): 359–394.
  • Kariya, Takehiko. 2017. “Understanding Structural Changes in Inequality in Japanese Education.” In Social Inequality in Post-growth Japan: Transformation During Economic and Demographic Stagnation, edited by David Chiavacci and Carola Hommerich, 149–183. New York, NY: Routledge.
  • Kato, Etsuko. 2015. “When a Man Flies Overseas: Corporate Nationalism, Gendered Happiness and Young Japanese Male Migrants in Canada and Australia.” Asian Anthropology 14 (3): 220–234. doi:10.1080/1683478X.2015.1115580.
  • Kawashima, Kumiko. 2010. “Japanese Working Holiday Makers in Australia and Their Relationship to the Japanese Labour Market: Before and After.” Asian Studies Review 34 (3): 267–286.
  • Kawashima, Kumiko. 2017. “Service Outsourcing and Labour Mobility in a Digital Age: Transnational Linkages between Japan and Dalian, China.” Global Networks 17 (4): 483–499.
  • Kawashima, Kumiko. 2018. “Longer-term Consequences of ‘Youth’ Migration: Japanese Temporary Migrants in China and the Life Course.” Journal of Intercultural Studies 39 (6): 658–672. doi:10.1080/07256868.2018.1533537.
  • Kawashima, Kumiko. 2019. “Japanese Labour Migration to China and IT Service Outsourcing: The Case of Dalian.” In Destination China: Immigration to China in the Post-reform Era, edited by Angela Lehmann and Pauline Leonard, 123–145. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Khattab, Nabil, and Shereen Hussein. 2018. “Can Religious Affiliation Explain the Disadvantage of Muslim Women in the British Labour Market?” Work, Employment and Society 32 (6): 1011–1028. doi:10.1177/0950017017711099.
  • King, Russell, Tony Warnes, and Allan Williams. 2000. Sunset Lives: British Retirement Migration to the Mediterranean. New York: Berg Publishers.
  • Koser, Khalid. 2010. “The Impact of the Global Financial Crisis on International Migration.” The Whitehead Journal of Diplomacy and International Relations 11 (1): 13–20.
  • Lan, Pei-Chia. 2011. “White Privilege, Language Capital and Cultural Ghettoisation: Western High-skilled Migrants in Taiwan.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 37 (10): 1669–1693. doi:10.1080/1369183X.2011.613337.
  • Liu-Farrer, Gracia, and An Huy Tran. 2019. “Bridging the Institutional Gaps: International Education as a Migration Industry.” International Migration 57 (3): 235–249. doi:10.1111/imig.12543.
  • Lukács, Gabriella. 2010. Scripted Affects, Branded Selves: Television, Subjectivity, and Capitalism in 1990s Japan. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
  • Luthra, Renee, and Lucinda Platt. 2016. “Elite or Middling? International Students and Migrant Diversification.” Ethnicities 16 (2): 316–344. doi:10.1177/1468796815616155.
  • Man, Guida. 2004. “Gender, Work and Migration: Deskilling Chinese Immigrant Women in Canada.” Women’s Studies International Forum 27 (2): 135–148. doi:10.1016/j.wsif.2004.06.004.
  • Matanle, Peter. 2006a. “Beyond Lifetime Employment? Re-fabricating Japan’s Employment Culture.” In Perspectives on Work, Employment and Society in Japan, edited by Peter Matanle and Wim Lunsing, 58–78. Loundmills: Palgrave MacMillan.
  • Matanle, Peter. 2006b. “The Habit of a Lifetime? Japanese and British University Students’ Attitudes to Permanent Employment.” Japan Forum 18 (2): 229–254.
  • McDowell, Linda. 2011. Redundant Masculinities?: Employment Change and White Working Class Youth. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publisher.
  • Mendoza, Cristóbal. 2018. “Southern Europe Skilled Migration into Mexico: The Impact of the Economic Crisis.” Regional Studies: 1–10. doi:10.1080/00343404.2018.1447101.
  • MEXT (Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology). 2008. “Sotsugyōshasū, shūshokushasū oyobi shūshokuritsu nado no sui’i [daigaku (gakubu)].” Accessed January 31, 2019. http://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/toukei/001/08072901/003/sanzu11.pdf.
  • MEXT (Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology). 2015. “Heisei nijūnananendo gakkō kihon chōsa (sokuhochi) no kōhyō ni tsuite.” Accessed January 31, 2019. www.mext.go.jp/component/b_menu/houdou/__icsFiles/afieldfile/2015/12/25/1365647_01.pdf.
  • MEXT (Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology). 2018. “Sankō 2 Kokkōshiritsu daigaku no jugyōryōtō no suii.” Accessed January 31, 2019. http://www.mext.go.jp/a_menu/koutou/shinkou/07021403/1412031.htm.
  • MHLW (Ministry of Health Labor and Welfare). 2013. “Heisei 25 nenban rōdō keizai no bunseki: Kōzō henka no naka deno koyō, jinzai to hatarakikata.” Accessed February 2, 2019. https://www.mhlw.go.jp/wp/hakusyo/roudou/13/13-1.html.
  • MHLW (Ministry of Health Labor and Welfare). 2017. “Heisei 28 nen chingin kōzō kihon tōkei chōsa kekka no gaiyō.” Accessed January 31, 2018. http://www.mhlw.go.jp/toukei/itiran/roudou/chingin/kouzou/z2016/index.html.
  • MHLW (Ministry of Health Labor and Welfare). 2018. “Shinki gakusotsu shūshokusha no rishoku jōkyō (heisei 27 nen 3 gatsu sotsugyōsha).” Accessed September 10, 2019. https://www.mhlw.go.jp/stf/houdou/0000177553_00001.html.
  • Naafs, Suzanne, and Tracey Skelton. 2018. “Youthful Futures? Aspirations, Education and Employment in Asia.” Children’s Geographies 16 (1): 1–14. doi:10.1080/14733285.2018.1402164.
  • Nakajima, Hiroshi. 2015. “Kyaria kyōiku to jyakunen rishokuristu: Tōkei bunseki kara no ikkōsatsu.” Kansai daigaku kōtō kyōiku kenkyū 6: 57–68.
  • Nishimura, Junko. 2016. Motherhood and Work in Contemporary Japan. London: Routledge.
  • North, Scott. 2014. “Limited Regular Employment and the Reform of Japan’s Division of Labor.” The Asia-Pacific Journal 12 (15): 1–22. https://apjjf.org/2014/12/15/Scott-North/4106/article.html.
  • OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development). 2017. “The Pursuit of Gender Equality: An Uphill Battle.” Accessed February 7, 2019. http://www.oecd.org/publications/the-pursuit-of-gender-equality-9789264281318-en.htm.
  • Ohta, Soichi., and Yoshio Horiguchi (editorial supervision by the Economic and Social Research Institute Higuchi, the Cabinet Office, Japan). 2010. “15 jyakunen koyō mondai to sedai kōka.” In Rōdō shijō to shotoku bunpai, 514–539. Tokyo: Keiōgijukudaigakushuppank.
  • Ohta, Souichi, Yuji Genda, and Ayako Kondo. 2008. “The Endless Ice Age: A Review of the Cohort Effect in Japan.” Japanese Economy 35 (3): 55–86. doi:10.2753/JES1097-203X350303.
  • Oliver, Caroline, and Karen O’Reilly. 2010. “A Bourdieusian Analysis of Class and Migration: Habitus and the Individualizing Process.” Sociology 44 (1): 49–66. doi:10.1177/0038038509351627.
  • Ono, Mayumi. 2015. “Descending from Japan: Lifestyle Mobility of Japanese Male Youth to Thailand.” Asian Anthropology 14 (3): 249–264. doi:10.1080/1683478X.2015.1117220.
  • Osawa, Machiko, Myoung Jung Kim, and Jeff Kingston. 2013. “Precarious Work in Japan.” American Behavioral Scientist 57 (3): 309–334. doi:10.1177/0002764212466240.
  • Parutis, Violetta. 2014. “‘Economic Migrants’ or ‘Middling Transnationals’? East European Migrants’ Experiences of Work in the UK.” International Migration 52 (1): 36–55. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2435.2010.00677.x.
  • Pateman, Carole. 1988. The Sexual Contract. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
  • Ray, Ranita. 2018. The Making of a Teenage Service Class: Poverty and Mobility in an American City. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
  • Roberson, James. 1998. Japanese Working Class Lives: An Ethnographic Study of Factory Workers. London: Routledge.
  • Robertson, Shanthi. 2014. “Time and Temporary Migration: The Case of Temporary Graduate Workers and Working Holiday Makers in Australia.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 40 (12): 1915–1933.
  • Rosenberger, Nancy. 2007. “Rethinking Emerging Adulthood in Japan: Perspectives from Long-term Single Women.” Child Development Perspectives 1 (2): 92–95. doi:10.1111/j.1750-8606.2007.00021.x.
  • Rutten, Mario, and Sanderien Verstappen. 2014. “Middling Migration: Contradictory Mobility Experiences of Indian Youth in London.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 40 (8): 1217–1235. doi:10.1080/1369183X.2013.830884.
  • Savage, Mike, Fiona Devine, Niall Cunningham, Mark Taylor, Yaojun Li, Johs Hjellbrekke, Brigitte Le Roux, Sam Friedman, and Andrew Miles. 2013. “A New Model of Social Class? Findings from the BBC’s Great British Class Survey Experiment.” Sociology 47 (2): 219–250. doi:10.1177/0038038513481128.
  • Scott, Sam. 2006. “The Social Morphology of Skilled Migration: The Case of the British Middle Class in Paris.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 32 (7): 1105–1129. doi:10.1080/13691830600821802.
  • Shimoda, Sayuri A. 2016. “Time to Retire: Is Lifetime Employment Still Viable in Japan?” Fordham International Law Journal 39 (3): 753–789.
  • Slater, David H. 2010. “The “New Working Class” of Urban Japan: Socialization and Contradiction from Middle School to the Labor Market.” In Social Class in Contemporary Japan: Structures, Sorting and Strategies, edited by Hiroshi Ishida and David H Slater, 137–169. London and New York: Routldge.
  • Smith, Colin. 2018. “The Precarious and the Transitional: Labor Casualization and Youth in Post-bubble Japan.” Children’s Geographies 16 (1): 80–91. doi:10.1080/14733285.2017.1395392.
  • Song, Jesook. 2009. South Koreans in the Debt Crisis: The Creation of a Neoliberal Welfare Society. Durham and London: Duke University Press.
  • Sooudi, Olga Kanzaki. 2014. Japanese New York: Self-reinvention and Migrant Artists on the World Stage. Honolulu: University of Hawai’I Press.
  • Statistics Bureau. 2008. “Rōdōryoku chōsa nenpō heisei 20 nen (2008 nen).” Accessed January 31, 2019. http://www.stat.go.jp/data/roudou/report/index.html.
  • Statistics Bureau. 2017. “Rōdōryoku chōsa (shousai shūkei) heisei 28 nendo (2016 nen) heikin (sokuhō).” Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications, Japanese Government. Accessed January 31, 2018. http://www.stat.go.jp/data/roudou/sokuhou/nen/dt/pdf/index1.pdf.
  • Suzuki, Ayako. 2015. “Young Japanese Men’s Transnational Mobility: A Case Study in Dublin.” Asian Anthropology 14 (3): 235–248. doi:10.1080/1683478X.2015.1115583.
  • Trenz, Hans-Jörg, and Anna Triandafyllidou. 2017. “Complex and Dynamic Integration Processes in Europe: Intra EU Mobility and International Migration in Times of Recession.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 43 (4): 546–559. doi:10.1080/1369183X.2016.1251013.
  • Van Mol, Christof. 2016. “Migration Aspirations of European Youth in Times of Crisis.” Journal of Youth Studies 19 (10): 1303–1320. doi:10.1080/13676261.2016.1166192.
  • Van Riemsdijk, Micheline, Scott Basford, and Alana Burnham. 2016. “Socio-cultural Incorporation of Skilled Migrants at Work: Employer and Migrant Perspectives.” International Migration 54 (3): 20–34.
  • Vogel, Ezra. 1963. Japan’s New Middle Class: The Salary Man and his Family in a Tokyo Suburb. Berkeley: University of California Press.
  • Walther, Andreas. 2006. “Regimes of Youth Transitions: Choice, Flexibility and Security in Young People’s Experiences Across Different European Contexts.” Young 14 (2): 119–139. doi:10.1177/1103308806062737.
  • Wiles, Janine. 2008. “Sense of Home in a Transnational Social Space: New Zealanders in London.” Global Networks 8 (1): 116–137.
  • Willis, Paul E. 1977. Learning to Labor: How Working Class Kids Get Working Class Jobs. Farnborough, England: Saxon House.
  • Woronov, Terry. 2015. Class Work: Vocational Schools and China’s Urban Youth. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
  • Worth, Nancy. 2009. “Understanding Youth Transition as ‘Becoming’: Identity, Time and Futurity.” Geoforum; Journal of Physical, Human, and Regional Geosciences 40 (6): 1050–1060. doi:10.1016/j.geoforum.2009.07.007.
  • Yano, Masakazu, and Junko Hamanaka. 2006. “Naze, daigaku ni shingaku shinainoka: Kenzaiteki juyō to senzaiteki juyō no kettei yōin.” Kyōiku shakaigaku kenkyū 79: 85–104.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.