Disgraceful return: Gulf migration and shifting national narratives amid COVID-19

References

• Adhikari, J., M. Rai, M. Subedi, and C. Barrel. 2023. “Foreign Labour Migration in Nepal in Relation to Covid-19: Analysis of Migrants’ Aspirations, Policy Response and Policy Gaps from Disaster Justice Perspective.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 49 (20): 5219–5237. doi:10.1080/1369183X.2024.2268983.
   Google Scholar
• Alshehabi, O., A. Hanieh, and A. Khalaf. 2014. Transit States: Labour, Migration and Citizenship in the Gulf. London: Pluto Press.
   Google Scholar
• Anich, R., J. Crush, S. Melde, and J. O. Oucho. 2014. A New Perspective on Human Mobility in the South. New York: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Babar, Z. 2017. “The “Humane Economy”: Migrant Labour and Islam in Qatar and the UAE.” Sociology of Islam 5 (2–3): 200–223. https://doi.org/10.1163/22131418-00503004.
   Google Scholar
• Babar, Z. R. 2020. “Understanding Labour Migration Policies in the Gulf Cooperation Council Countries.” In Asianization of Migrant Workers in the Gulf Countries, edited by S. Rajan and G. Z. Oommen, 37–53. Singapore: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Babar, Z., and A. Gardner. 2016. “Circular Migration and the Gulf States.” In Impact of Circular Migration on Human, Political and Civil Rights. United Nations University Series on Regionalism, edited by C. Solé, S. Parella, T. Martí, and S. Nita, Vol. 12, 45–62. Cham: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-28896-3_3
   Google Scholar
• Bastia, T. 2013. “The Migration-Development Nexus: Current Challenges and Future Research Agenda.” Geography Compass 7 (7): 464–477. https://doi.org/10.1111/gec3.12055.
   Google Scholar
• Black, R., and R. King. 2004. “Editorial Introduction: Migration, Return and Development in West Africa.” Population, Space and Place 10 (2): 75–83. https://doi.org/10.1002/psp.318.
   Google Scholar
• BMET (Bureau of Manpower, Employment and Training). 2020. Overseas Employment and Remittance from 1976-2020 (February). http://www.old.bmet.gov.bd/BMET/statisticalDataAction.
   Google Scholar
• Carling, J. 2004. “Emigration, Return and Development in Cape Verde: The Impact of Closing Borders.” Population, Space and Place 10 (2): 113–132. https://doi.org/10.1002/psp.322.
   Google Scholar
• Carling, J., and M. B. Erdal. 2014. “Return Migration and Transnationalism: How are the two Connected?” International Migration 52 (6): 2–12. https://doi.org/10.1111/imig.12180.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cassarino, J.-P. 2004. “Theorising Return Migration: The Conceptual Approach to Return Migrants Revisited.” International Journal on Multicultural Societies 6 (2): 253–279.
   Google Scholar
• Castles, S., and R. D. Wise. 2008. Migration and Development: Perspectives from the South. Geneva: International Organization for Migration.
   Google Scholar
• Cerase, F. P. 1974. “Expectations and Reality: A Case Study of Return Migration from the United States to Southern Italy.” International Migration Review 8 (2): 245–262. https://doi.org/10.1177/019791837400800210.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chowdhury, M., and S. I. Rajan. 2018. South Asian Migration in the Gulf: Causes and Consequences. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Conway, D., and R. Potter. 2009. Return Migration of the Next Generations: 21st Century Transnational Mobility. New York: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• De Haas, H. 2010. “Migration and Development: A Theoretical Perspective.” International Migration Review 44 (1): 227–264. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-7379.2009.00804.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Haas, H. 2012. “The Migration and Development Pendulum: A Critical View on Research and Policy.” International Migration 50 (3): 8–25. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2435.2012.00755.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Haas, H., T. Fokkema, and M. F. Fihri. 2015. “Return Migration as Failure or Success?” Journal of International Migration and Integration 16 (2): 415–429. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12134-014-0344-6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eelens, F., and J. D. Speckmann. 1990. “Recruitment of Labor Migrants for the Middle East: The Sri Lankan Case.” International Migration Review 24 (2): 297–322. https://doi.org/10.1177/019791839002400205.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ekanayake, A., and K. Amirthalingam. 2021. “The Economic Impact of the Covid-19 Pandemic on Sri Lankan Migrants in Qatar.” Comparative Migration Studies 9: 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40878-021-00246-0.
   Google Scholar
• Esim, S., and M. Smith. 2004. Gender and Migration in Arab States: The Case of Domestic Workers. Geneva: International Labour Organisation.
   Google Scholar
• Faist, T. 2008. “Migrants as Transnational Development Agents: An Inquiry Into the Newest Round of the Migration–Development Nexus.” Population, Space and Place 14 (1): 21–42. https://doi.org/10.1002/psp.471.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Faist, T., M. Fauser, and E. Reisenauer. 2013. Transnational Migration. Cambridge: Polity.
   Google Scholar
• Fargues, Philippe, and Nasra M. Shah. 2017. Skilful Survival: Irregular Migration to the Gulf. Florence: GLMM.
   Google Scholar
• Farooq, S., and G. M. Arif. 2023. “The Facts of Return Migration in the Wake of COVID-19: A Policy Framework for Reintegration of Pakistani Workers.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 49 (20): 5190–5218. doi:10.1080/1369183X.2024.2268976.
   Google Scholar
• Gardner, A. M. 2010. City of Strangers: Gulf Migration and the Indian Community in Bahrain. New York: Cornell University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Gardner, A. M. 2011. “Gulf Migration and the Family.” Journal of Arabian Studies 1 (1): 3–25. https://doi.org/10.1080/21534764.2011.576043.
   Google Scholar
• Ghosh, B. 2000. Return Migration: Journey of Hope or Despair? Geneva: International Organization for Migration.
   Google Scholar
• Gibson, J., and D. McKenzie. 2011. “The Microeconomic Determinants of Emigration and Return Migration of the Best and Brightest: Evidence from the Pacific.” Journal of Development Economics 95 (1): 18–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2009.11.002.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glick Schiller, N. 2011. “A Global Perspective on Migration and Development.” In The Migration-Development Nexus: A Transnational Perspective, edited by T. Faist, M. Fauser, and P. Kivisto, 29–56. Basingtoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Glick Schiller, N., and T. Faist. 2010. Migration, Development, and Transnationalization: A Critical Stance. New York: Berghahn Books.
   Google Scholar
• Gmelch, G. 1980. “Return Migration.” Annual Review of Anthropology 9: 135–159. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.an.09.100180.001031.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gunatilleke, Godfrey. 1991. Migration to the Arab World: Experience of Returning Migrants. Tokyo.: United Nations University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hammar, T., G. Brochmann, K. Tamas, and T. Faist. 1997. International Migration, Immobility and Development: Multidisciplinary Perspectives. Oxford: Berg.
   Google Scholar
• Hugo, G. J. 2003. “Migration and Development: A Perspective from Asia.” IOM Migration Research Series No. 14. Geneva: International Organization for Migration.
   Google Scholar
• Hujo, K., and N. Piper. 2010. South-South Migration: Implications for Social Policy and Development. Geneva: Palgrave Macmillan and United Nations Research Institute for Social Development.
   Google Scholar
• ILO. 2020. Protection of Migrant Workers During COVID-19 Pandemic: Recommendations for Policy Makers and Constituents. Geneva: ILO.
   Google Scholar
• Iredale, R., F. Guo, and S. Rozaio. 2003. Return Migration in the Asia Pacific. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.
   Google Scholar
• Islam, Dr. Md. N. 2020. “Migration from Bangladesh and Overseas Employment Policy.” [online]. www.bmet.org.bd.
   Google Scholar
• Jain, P. C., and G. Z. Oommen. 2017. South Asian Migration to Gulf Countries: History, Policies, Development. New Delhi: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Jamal, M. A. 2015. “The “Tiering” of Citizenship and Residency and the “Hierarchization” of Migrant Communities: The United Arab Emirates in Historical Context.” International Migration Review 49 (3): 601–632. https://doi.org/10.1111/imre.12132.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jureidini, R. 2019. “Global Governance and Labour Migration in the GCC.” In Global Governance and Muslim Organizations, edited by L. Pal, and M. Tok. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Jureidini, R., and S. F. Hassan. 2019. Migration and Islamic Ethics – Issues of Residence, Naturalization and Citizenship. Leiden: Brill.
   Google Scholar
• Kamrava, M., and Z. Babar. 2012. Migrant Labour in the Persian Gulf. New York: NYU.
   Google Scholar
• Khan, A., and H. Harroff-Tavel. 2011. “Reforming the Kafala: Challenges and opportunities in moving forward.” Asian and Pacific Migration Journal 20 (3–4): 293–313. https://doi.org/10.1177/011719681102000303.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• King, R. 1978. “Return Migration: A Neglected Aspect of Population Geography.” Area 10 (3): 175–182.
   Google Scholar
• Kleist, N. 2017. “Disrupted Migration Projects: The Moral Economy of Involuntary Return to Ghana from Libya.” Africa: the Journal of the International African Institute 87 (2): 322–342. https://doi.org/10.1017/S000197201600098X.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lang, T., B. Glorius, R. Nadler, and Z. Kovacs, 2016. “Introduction: Mobility Against the Stream? New Concepts, Methodological Approaches and Regional Perspectives on Return Migration in Europe.” In Return Migration and Regional Development in Europe Mobility Against the Stream, edited by R. Nadler, Zoltán Kovács, Birgit Glorius, and Thilo Lang, 1–22. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Limani, D., and J.-L. Arcand. 2023. “Remembrances of Things Past: Evidence from a Twenty-Year Kerala Panel.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 49 (20): 5305–5321. doi:10.1080/1369183X.2024.2268994.
   Google Scholar
• Lisa, A. 2011. “Making Migrants Responsible for Development: Cape Verdean Returnees and Northern Migration Politices.” Africa Specturm 41 (1): 61–83.
   Google Scholar
• Mahmood, R. A. 1991. “Bangladesh Returned Migrants from the Middle East: Process, Achievement, and Adjustment.” In Migration to the Arab World: Experience of Returning Migrants, edited by Godfrey Gunatilleke. Tokyo: United Nations University.
   Google Scholar
• Massey, D. S., J. Arango, G. Hugo, A. Kouaouci, A. Pellegrino, and E. Taylor. 1998. Worlds in Motion—Understanding International Migration at the end of the Millennium. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Nadler, R., Z. Kovacs, B. Glorius, and T. Lang. 2016. Return Migration and Regional Development in Europe Mobility Against the Stream. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Nicolas, I. M. 2011. “Heroes and Heroines from the Homeland: Migration from a Philippine Perspective.” Conference paper presented at the 16th International Metropolis Conference, “Migration Futures: perspectives on global changes, Azores Islands, 14 September.
   Google Scholar
• Nyberg-Sorensen, N., N. van Hear, and P. Engberg-Pedersen. 2002. “The Migration-Development Nexus Evidence and Policy Options State-of-the-Art Overview.” International Migration 40 (5): 3–47. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-2435.00210.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nzima, D., and P. Moyo. 2017. “The New ‘Diaspora Trap’ Framework: Explaining Return Migration from South Africa to Zimbabwe Beyond the ‘Failure-Success’ Framework.” Migration Letters 14 (3): 355–370. https://doi.org/10.33182/ml.v14i3.349.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olesen, H. 2002. “Migration, Return and Development: An Institutional Perspective.” International Migration 40 (5): 125–150. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-2435.00214.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Opiniano, J., and A. Ang. 2023. “Should I Stay or Should I Go? Analyzing Returnee Overseas Filipino Workers’ Reintegration Measures Given the COVID-19 Pandemic.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 49 (20): 5281–5304. doi:10.1080/1369183X.2024.2268992.
   Google Scholar
• Papademetriou, D. G., and P. L. Martin. 1991. The Unsettled Relationship: Labor Migration and Economic Development. London: Greenwood Press.
   Google Scholar
• Piper, N. 2009. “The Complex Interconnections of the Migration-Development Nexus: A Social Perspective.” Population, Space and Place 15 (2): 93–101. https://doi.org/10.1002/psp.535.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pitkänen, P., T. Hayakawa, K. Schmidt, M. Aksakal, and S. I. Rajan. 2019. Temporary Migration, Transformation and Development: Evidence from Europe and Asia. New Delhi: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Pries, L. 2016. “Circular Migration as (New) Strategy in Migration Policy? Lessons from Historical and Sociological Migration Research.” In Return Migration and Regional Development in Europe, edited by R. Nadler, Zoltán Kovács, Birgit Glorius, and Thilo Lang, 25–54. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Rahman, M. M. 2015. “Migrant Indebtedness: Bangladeshi Migrants in the GCC Countries’.” International Migration 53 (6): 205–219. https://doi.org/10.1111/imig.12084.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rahman, M. M. 2017. Bangladeshi Migration to Singapore: A Process-Oriented Approach. Singapore: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Rahman, M. M., Y. T. Tan, and A. K. M. A. Ullah. 2014. Migrant remittances in South Asia—Social, economic and political implications. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Rahman, M. M., and T. T. Yong. 2015. International Migration and Development in South Asia. New York: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Rajan, S. I. 2016. South Asia Migration Report 2017: Recruitment, Remittances and Reintegration. New Delhi: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Rajan, S. I. 2020. “Migrants at a Crossroads: COVID-19 and Challenges to Migration.” Migration and Development 9 (3): 323–330. https://doi.org/10.1080/21632324.2020.1826201.
   Google Scholar
• Rajan, S. I., B. Pattath, and H. Tohidimehr. 2023. “The Last Straw? Experiences and Future Plans of Returned Migrants in the India-GCC Corridor.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 49 (20): 5169–5189. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2024.2268970.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rajan, S. I., and C. S. Akhil. 2022. “Non-payment of Wages among Gulf Returnees in the First Wave of COVID 19.” In India Migration Report 2022: Health Professionals Migration, edited by S. I. Rajan, 244–263. Delhi: Routledge India.
   Google Scholar
• Rajan, S. I., and J.-L. Arcand. 2023. “COVID-19 Return Migration Phenomena: Experiences from South and Southeast Asia?” Journal of Ethic and Migration Studies 49 (20): 5133–5152. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2024.2268963.
   Google Scholar
• Rajan, S. I., and H. Arokkiaraj. 2022. “Return Migration from the Gulf Region to India Amidst COVID-19.” In Migration and Pandemics: Spaces of Solidarity and Spaces of Exception, edited by A. Triandafyllidou, 207–225. Cham: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Rajan, S. I., and G. Z. Oommen. 2020a. Asianization of Migrant Workers in the Gulf Countries. Singapore: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Rajan, S. I., and G. Z. Oommen. 2020b. “Asianization in the Gulf: A Fresh Outlook.” In Asianization of Migrant Workers in the Gulf Countries, edited by S. Irudaya Rajan and Ginu Zacharia Oommen, 1–17. Singapore: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9287-1_3.
   Google Scholar
• Rajan, S. I., and B. Pattath. 2021. “Kerala Return Emigrant Survey 2021: What Next for Return Migrants of Kerala? Working Paper.” Working Paper No. 504. September. Thiruvananthapuram: Centre for Development Studies.
   Google Scholar
• Rajan, S. I., and B. Pattath. 2022. “What Next for the COVID-19 Return Emigrants? Findings from the Kerala Return Emigrant Survey 2021.” In India Migration Report 2021, 1st edn. edited by S. I. Rajan, 181–195. London: Routledge India.
   Google Scholar
• Rajan, S. I., and P. Saxena. 2019. India's Low-Skilled Migration to the Middle East: Policies, Politics and Challenges. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Shah, M. N. 2010. “Building State Capacities for Managing Contract Worker Mobility: The Asia-GCC Context.” In IOM, World Migration Report 2010. Geneva: IOM.
   Google Scholar
• Stark, O. 1991. The Migration of Labor. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
   Google Scholar
• Subramaniam, G. 2020. Pandemic Prejudice-COVID 19 and Discriminatory Attitudes Towards Migrant Workers. East Sussex: Institute of Human Rights and Business (IHRB).
   Google Scholar
• Sumon, S. 2020. “Thousands of Bangladeshi could Leave Kuwait Next Week.” Arab News, 6 May. www.arabnews.com.
   Google Scholar
• Triandafyllidou, A. 2021. Migration and Pandemics: Spaces of Solidarity and Spaces of Exception. London: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Ullah, A. K. M. A. 2010. Rationalizing Migration Decisions: Labour Migrants in East and Southeast Asia. London: Ashgate.
   Google Scholar
• Ullah, A. K. M. A. 2013. “Exposure to Remittances: Theoretical and Empirical Implications for Gender.” Journal of International Migration and Integration 14 (3): 475–492.
   Google Scholar
• Ullah, A. K. M. A., F. Nawaz, and D. Chattoraj. 2021. “Locked up Under Lockdown: The COVID-19 Pandemic and the Migrant Population.” Social Sciences & Humanities Open 3 (1): 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssaho.2021.100126.
   Google Scholar
• UNNM. 2020. Forced Return of Migrants Must be Suspended in Times of COVID-19. United Nation Network on Migration. Geneva: IOM.
   Google Scholar
• Van Houte, M., and T. Davids. 2008. “Development and Return Migration: From Policy Panacea to Migrant Perspective Sustainability.” Third World Quarterly 29 (7): 1411–1429. https://doi.org/10.1080/01436590802386658.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Virupaksha, H. G., A. Kumar, and B. P. Nirmala. 2014. “Migration and Mental Health: An Interface.” Journal of Natural Science, Biology and Medicine 5 (2): 233–293. https://doi.org/10.4103/0976-9668.136141.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Weeraratne, B. 2020. “Return and Reintegration Without Assimilation.” Working Paper No 327. Singapore: Institute of South Asian Studies (ISAS).
   Google Scholar
• Weeraratne, B. 2023. “COVID-19 Pandemic Induced Wage Theft: Evidence from Sri Lankan Migrant Workers.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 49 (20): 5259–5280. doi:10.1080/1369183X.2024.2268989.
   Google Scholar