References
- Ahram, A.I., 2019. Break all the borders: separatism and the reshaping of the middle east. New York: Oxford University Press.
- Allsopp, H., 2015. The Kurds of Syria. London: I.B. Tauris.
- Asal, V., Pate, A., and Wilkenfeld, J., 2008. Minorities at risk organizational behavior data and codebook version 9/2008. Available from: http://www.mar.umd.edu/data.asp [Accessed 10 October 2017].
- Aziz, M.A., 2015. The Kurds of Iraq: nationalism and identity in Iraqi Kurdistan. London: I.B. Tauris.
- Bakke, K.M., Cunningham, K.G., and Seymour, L.J.M., 2012. A plague of initials: fragmentation, cohesion, and infighting in civil wars. Perspectives on Politics, 10 (2), 265–283. doi:https://doi.org/10.1017/S1537592712000667.
- Ball, P., 2013. Why raw data doesn’t support analysis of violence. Human Rights Data Analysis Group (HRDG). Available from: https://hrdag.org/2013/06/14/why-raw-data-doesnt-support-analysis-of-violence/ [Accessed 5 August 2016].
- Christia, F., 2012. Alliance formation in civil wars. New York: Cambridge University Press.
- Colaresi, M.P., Rasler, K., and Thompson, W.R., 2007. Strategic rivalries in world politics: position, space and conflict escalation. New York: Cambridge University Press.
- Cunningham, D.E., Gleditsch, K.S., and Salehyan, I., 2013. Non-state actors in civil wars: A new dataset. Conflict Management and Peace Science, 30 (5), 516–531. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/0738894213499673
- Cunningham, K.G., 2014. Inside the politics of self-determination. New York: Oxford University Press.
- Diehl, P.F. and Goertz, G., 2012. The rivalry process: how rivalries are sustained and terminated. In: J.A. Vasquez, ed. What do we know about war? 2nd ed. Plymouth: Rowman & Littlefield, 83–109.
- Dorff, C., Gallop, M., and Minhas, S., 2020. Networks of violence: predicting conflict in Nigeria. The Journal of Politics, 82 (2), 476–493. doi:https://doi.org/10.1086/706459.
- Durac, V., 2015. Crisis and New Agenda of the Arab States: the role of non-state actors in Arab countries after the Arab uprisings. European Institute of the Mediterranean. Available from: https://www.iemed.org/observatori/arees-danalisi/arxius-adjunts/anuari/med.2015/IEMed%20Yearbook%202015_NonStateActorsArabUprisings_VincentDurac.pdf [Accessed 15 November 2019].
- Fjelde, H. and Nillson, D., 2012. Rebels against rebels: explaining violence between rebel groups. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 56 (4), 604–628. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002712439496.
- Gade, E.K., Hafez, M.M., and Gabbay, M., 2019. Fratricide in rebel movements: a network analysis of Syrian militant infighting. Journal of Peace Research, 56 (3), 321–335. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343318806940.
- Hafez, M.M., 2017. Fratricidal Rebels: Ideological Extremity and Warring Factionalism in Civil Wars. Terrorism and Political Violence, 32 (3), 604–629. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2017.1389726
- Klein, J.P., Goertz, G., and Diehl, P.F., 2006. The new rivalry dataset: procedures and patterns. Journal of Peace Research, 43 (3), 331–348. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343306063935.
- Knapp, M., Flach, A., and Ayboga, E., 2016. Revolution in rojava: democratic autonomy and women’s liberation in Syrian Kurdistan. London: Pluto Press.
- Lacher, W., 2020. Libya’s fragmentation: structure and process in violent conflict. London: I.B. Tauris.
- Lister, C., 2015. The Syrian Jihad: al Qaeda, the Islamic state and the evolution of an insurgency. London: Hurst & Company.
- Lund, A., 2014. Pushing back against the islamic State of Iraq and the levant: the Islamic front. Carnegie Middle East Center. Available from: https://carnegie-mec.org/diwan/54121?lang=en [Accessed 5 November 2018].
- Mansfield, P., 2013. A history of the Middle East. 4th ed. London: Penguin.
- Mapping Militant Organizations. 2017. Stanford University. Available from: http://web.stanford.edu/group/mappingmilitants/cgi-bin/ [Accessed 10 October 2017].
- Pischedda, C., 2018. Wars within wars: why windows of opportunity and vulnerability cause inter-rebel fighting in internal conflicts. International Security, 43 (1), 138–176. doi:https://doi.org/10.1162/isec_a_00322.
- Raleigh, C., et al., 2010. Introducing ACLED-armed conflict location and event data. Journal of Peace Research, 47 (5), 651–660. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343310378914.
- Rowan, M., 2017. Al Qaeda’s latest rebranding: Hay’at Tahrir al Sham. Wilson Center. Available from: https://www.wilsoncenter.org/article/al-qaedas-latest-rebranding-hayat-tahrir-al-sham [Accessed 5 February 2018].
- Sinno, A.H., 2008. Organisations at war in Afghanistan and beyond. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
- Smyth, P., 2015. The Shiite Jihad in Syria and its regional effects. Washington Institute. Available from: https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/view/the-shiite-jihad-in-syria-and-its-regional-effects [Accessed 15 October 2017].
- Thompson, W.R., 2001. Identifying rivals and rivalries in world politics. International Studies Quarterly, 45 (4), 557–586. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/0020-8833.00214.
- Thompson, W.R. and Dreyer, D.R., 2012. Handbook of International Rivalries 1494-2010. London: Sage.
- UCDP, 2006. Definitions, sources and methods for Uppsala conflict data program battle- death estimates. Uppsala Conflict Data Program (UCDP). Available from: https://ucdp.uu.se/downloads/old/brd/ucdp-brd-conf-41-2006.pdf [Accessed 5 November 2018].
- Vinci, A., 2009. Armed groups and the balance of power: the international relations of terrorists, warlords and insurgents. London: Routledge.
- Yesiltas, M. and Kardas, T., 2018. Introduction: the phenomenon of non-state armed actors and patterns of violent geopolitics in the middle east. In: Y. Murat and T. Kardas, eds. Non-state armed actors in the middle east: geopolitics, Ideology, and strategy. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 3–21.