Saints and Warriors: Strategic Choice in Rebel Recruitment in the Syrian Civil War

References

• Achvarina, V. and Reich, S.F., 2006. No place to hide: refugees, displaced persons, and the recruitment of child soldiers. International Security, 31 (1), 127–164. doi:10.1162/isec.2006.31.1.127.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Albrecht, H., 2019. Military insubordination in popular mass uprisings. Political Science Quarterly, 134 (2), 303–328. doi:10.1002/polq.12899.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Albrecht, H. and Koehler, K., 2018. Going on the run: what drives military desertion in civil war. Security Studies, 27 (2), 179–203. doi:10.1080/09636412.2017.1386931.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Albrecht, H. and Ohl, D., 2016. Exit, resistance, loyalty: military behavior during unrest in authoritarian regimes. Perspectives on Politics, 14 (1), 38–52. doi:10.1017/S1537592715003217.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anzalone, C., 2016. The multiple faces of Jabhat al-Nusra/Jabhat Fath al-Sham in Syria’s civil war. Inside Turkey, 18 (2), 41–50.
   Google Scholar
• Arjona, A., 2016. Rebelocracy: social order in the Colombian civil war. New York: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Arjona, A. and Kalyvas, S., 2012. Recruitment into armed groups in Colombia: a survey of demobilized fighters. In: Y. Guichaoua, ed. Understanding collective political violence. Conflict, inequality and ethnicity. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 143–171.
   Google Scholar
• Berman, A., 2012. Rebel groups of Jebel al-Zawiyah. Washington, DC: Institute for the Study of War.
   Google Scholar
• Bloom, M., 2017. Constructing expertise: terrorist recruitment and “talent spotting” in the PIRA, Al Qaeda, and ISIS. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 40 (7), 603–623. doi:10.1080/1057610X.2016.1237219.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cafarella, J., 2014. Jabhat al-Nusra in Syria: an Islamic Emirate for Al-Qaeda. Washington, DC: Institute for the Study of War, Middle East Security Report 25.
   Google Scholar
• Collier, P. and Hoeffler, A., 2004. Greed and grievance in civil war. Oxford Economic Paper, 56 (4), 563–595. doi:10.1093/oep/gpf064.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Soysa, I., 2002. Paradise is a bazaar? Greed, creed, and governance in civil war, 1989-99. Journal of Peace Research, 39 (4), 395–416. doi:10.1177/0022343302039004002.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doctor, A.C., 2021. Rebel leadership and the specialisation of rebel operations. Civil Wars, 23 (3), 311–342. doi:10.1080/13698249.2021.1906073.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Droz-Vincent, P., 2014. ‘State of barbary’ (take two): from the Arab Spring to the return of violence in Syria. The Middle East Journal, 68 (1), 33–58. doi:10.3751/68.1.12.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fearon, J. and Laitin, D., 2003. Ethnicity, insurgency, and civil war. The American Political Science Review, 97 (1), 75–90. doi:10.1017/S0003055403000534.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Florea, A., 2012. Where do we go from here? Conceptual, theoretical, and methodological gaps in the large-n civil war research program. International Studies Review, 14, 78–98. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2486.2012.01102.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Forney, J.F., 2015. Who can we trust with a gun? Information networks and adverse selection in militia recruitment. The Journal of Conflict Resolution, 59 (5), 824–849. doi:10.1177/0022002715576752.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gates, S., 2002. Recruitment and allegiance: the micro-foundations of rebellion. The Journal of Conflict Resolution, 46 (1), 111–130. doi:10.1177/0022002702046001007.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gates, S. and Podder, S., 2015. Social media, recruitment, allegiance and the Islamic State. Perspectives on Terrorism, 9 (4), 107–116.
   Google Scholar
• Gaub, F., 2014. Syria’s military: last man standing? Strategic Europe (blog), July 29, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.
   Google Scholar
• George, A. and Bennett, A., 2005. Case studies and theory development in the social sciences. Cambridge: MIT Press.
   Google Scholar
• Goldberg, E., 1991. Smashing idols and the state: the Protestant ethic and Egyptian Sunni radicalism. Comparative Studies in Society and History, 33 (1), 3–35. doi:10.1017/S0010417500016844.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Green, A.H., 2016. The commander’s dilemma: creating and controlling armed group violence. Journal of Peace Research, 53 (5), 619–632. doi:10.1177/0022343316653645.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenwood, M.T., 2017. Islamic State and al-Qaeda’s foreign fighters. Connections, 16 (1), 87–97.
   Google Scholar
• Gurr, T., 1970. Why men rebel. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hazen, J., 2013. What rebels want: resources and supply networks in wartime. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hegghammer, T., 2013. The recruiter’s dilemma: signaling and rebel recruitment tactics. Journal of Peace Research, 50 (1), 3–16. doi:10.1177/0022343312452287.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Henshaw, A.L., 2016. Why women rebel: greed, grievance, and women in armed rebel groups. Journal of Global Security Studies, 1 (3), 204–219. doi:10.1093/jogss/ogw008.
   Google Scholar
• Hofmann, D.C., 2015. Quantifying and qualifying charisma: a theoretical framework for measuring the presence of charismatic authority in terrorist groups. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 38 (9), 710–733. doi:10.1080/1057610X.2015.1048100.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holliday, J., 2012a. Syria’s armed opposition. Washington, DC: Institute for the Study of War, Middle East Security Report 3.
   Google Scholar
• Holliday, J., 2012b. Syria’s maturing insurgency. Washington, DC: Institute for the Study of War, Middle East Security Report 5.
   Google Scholar
• Horowitz, D.L., 1985. Ethnic groups in conflict. Berkeley: University of California Press.
   Google Scholar
• Humphreys, M. and Weinstein, J., 2008. Who fights? The determinants of participation in civil war. American Journal of Political Science, 52 (2), 436–455. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5907.2008.00322.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hwang, J.C. and Schulze, K.E., 2018. Why they join: pathways into Indonesian Jihadist organizations. Terrorism and Political Violence, 30 (6), 911–932. doi:10.1080/09546553.2018.1481309.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• International Crisis Group, 2013. Syria’s mutating conflict. Brussels: ICG, Middle East Report No. 128.
   Google Scholar
• Kaldor, M., 1999. New and old wars: organized violence in a global era. Palo Alto: Stanford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Kalyvas, S., 2006. The logic of violence in civil war. New York: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Kalyvas, S., 2015. Is ISIS a revolutionary group and if yes, what are the implications? Perspectives on Terrorism, 9 (4), 42–47.
   Google Scholar
• Keatinge, T., 2014. The importance of financing in enabling and sustaining the conflict in Syria (and beyond). Perspectives on Terrorism, 8 (4), 53–61.
   Google Scholar
• Koehler, K., Ohl, D., and Albrecht, H., 2016. From disaffection to desertion: how networks facilitate military insubordination in civil conflict. Comparative Politics, 48 (4), 39–57. doi:10.5129/001041516819197601.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krause, P., 2017. Rebel power: why national movements compete, fight, and win. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Lantis, J.S., 2021. Advocacy coalitions and foreign policy change: understanding US responses to the Syrian civil war. Journal of Global Security Studies, 6 (1), ogaa016. doi:10.1093/jogss/ogaa016.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leenders, R. and Heydemann, S., 2012. Popular mobilization in Syria: opportunity and threat, and the social networks of the early risers. Mediterranean Politics, 17 (2), 139–159. doi:10.1080/13629395.2012.694041.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levy, J.S., 2008. Cases studies: types, designs, and logics of inference. Conflict Management and Peace Science, 25 (1), 1–18. doi:10.1080/07388940701860318.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lewis, J.I., 2017. How does ethnic rebellion start? Comparative Political Studies, 50 (10), 1420–1450. doi:10.1177/0010414016672235.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lichbach, M., 1995. The rebel’s dilemma. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
   Google Scholar
• Ligon, G.S., et al., 2017. The Jihadi Industry: assessing the Organizational, Leadership, and Cyber Profiles. Final Report prepared for the Department of Homeland Security. College Park: START.
   Google Scholar
• Lister, C., 2015. The Syrian Jihad: al-Qaeda, the Islamic State and the evolution of an insurgency. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Mahmood, M. and Black, I., 2013. Free Syrian Army rebels defect to Islamist group Jabhat al-Nusra. The Guardian, 8 May.
   Google Scholar
• Mahoney, C.W., 2018. More data, new problems: audiences, ahistoricity, and selection bias in terrorism and insurgency research. International Studies Review, 20 (4), 589–614.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCormick, G.H. and Giordano, F., 2007. Things come together: symbolic violence and guerilla mobilisation. Third World Quarterly, 28 (2), 295–320. doi:10.1080/01436590601153705.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McLauchlin, T., 2015. Desertion and collective action in civil wars. International Studies Quarterly, 59 (4), 669–679.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mendelsohn, B., 2022. In limited demand: the other foreign volunteers in the Syrian civil war. Terrorism and Political Violence, 34 (4), 682–705. doi:10.1080/09546553.2020.1730330.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mironova, V., Alhamad, K., and Whitt, S., 2020. Rebel group attrition and reversion to violence: micro-level evidence from Syria. International Studies Quarterly, 64 (2), 285–294. doi:10.1093/isq/sqaa002.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mironova, V., Mrie, L., and Whitt, S., 2014. Why are fighters leaving the Free Syrian Army? Washington Post, 12 May.
   Google Scholar
• Mironova, V., Mrie, L., and Whitt, S., 2020. Commitment to rebellion: evidence from Syria. The Journal of Conflict Resolution, 64 (4), 614–639. doi:10.1177/0022002719867472.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muller, E.N. and Opp, K.D., 1986. Rational choice and rebellious collective action. The American Political Science Review, 80 (2), 471–487. doi:10.2307/1958269.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ohl, D., Albrecht, H., and Koehler, K., 2015. For money or liberty? The political economy of military desertion and rebel recruitment in the Syrian civil war. Beirut: Carnegie Middle East Center.
   Google Scholar
• Parkinson, S.E., 2013. Organizing rebellion: rethinking high-risk mobilization and social networks in war. The American Political Science Review, 107 (3), 418–432. doi:10.1017/S0003055413000208.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parkinson, S.E., 2016. Money talks: discourse, networks, and structure in militant organizations. Perspectives on Politics, 14 (4), 976–994. doi:10.1017/S1537592716002875.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peterson, R.D., 2001. Resistance and rebellion: lessons from Eastern Europe. New York: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Pierret, T., 2017. Salafis at war in Syria. In: F. Cavatorta and F. Merone, eds. Salafism after the Arab Awakening: contending with people’s power. London: Hurst, 137–154.
   Google Scholar
• Podder, S., 2017. Ex-Combatant agency and re-recruitment. Critical Studies on Security, 5 (2), 145–164. doi:10.1080/21624887.2017.1329474.
   Google Scholar
• Reno, W., 2007. Patronage politics and the behavior of armed groups. Civil Wars, 9 (4), 324–342. doi:10.1080/13698240701699409.
   Google Scholar
• Reno, W. and Matisek, J., 2018. A new era of insurgent recruitment: have ‘new’ civil wars changed the dynamic. Civil Wars, 20 (3), 358–378. doi:10.1080/13698249.2018.1497314.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Revkin, M., 2018. How militants in Iraq and Syria recruit and use children. Washington Post, Monkey Cage, 14 February.
   Google Scholar
• Richani, N., 2016. The political economy and complex interdependence of the war system in Syria. Civil Wars, 18 (1), 45–68. doi:10.1080/13698249.2016.1144495.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Richards, J., 2018. Troop retention in civil wars: desertion, denunciation, and military organization in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Journal of Global Security Studies, 3 (1), 38–55. doi:10.1093/jogss/ogx023.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sanin, F.G., 2012. The dilemmas of recruitment: the Colombian case. In: Y. Guichaoua, ed. Understanding collective political violence. Conflict, inequality and ethnicity. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 175–195.
   Google Scholar
• Sayigh, Y., 2013. The Syrian opposition’s leadership problem. Beirut: Carnegie Middle East Center.
   Google Scholar
• Seymour, L., 2014. Why factions switch sides in civil wars: rivalry, patronage and realignment in Sudan. International Security, 39 (2), 92–131. doi:10.1162/ISEC_a_00179.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shapiro, J.N., 2013. The Terrorist’s Dilemma: managing Violent Covert Organizations. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Spyer, J., 2012. Defying a dictator: meet the Free Syrian Army. World Affairs, May/June. http://www.worldaffairsjournal.org/article/defying-dictator-meet-free-syrian-army.
   Google Scholar
• Tamm, H., 2016. Rebel leaders, internal rivals, and external resources: how state sponsors affect insurgent cohesion. International Studies Quarterly, 60 (4), 599–610. doi:10.1093/isq/sqw033.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tankel, S., 2019. Universal soldiers or parochial actors: understanding Jihadists as products of their environments. Terrorism and Political Violence, 31 (2), 299–322. doi:10.1080/09546553.2016.1219725.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taylor, C., Semmelrock, T., and McDermott, A., 2019. The cost of defection: the consequences of quitting Al-Shabaab. International Journal of Conflict and Violence, 13, 1–13.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ugarizza, J.E. and Craig, M.J., 2013. The relevance of ideology to contemporary armed conflicts: a quantitative analysis of former combatants in Colombia. The Journal of Conflict Resolution, 57 (3), 445–477. doi:10.1177/0022002712446131.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Waldner, D., 2015. Process tracing and qualitative causal inference. Security Studies, 24 (2), 239–250. doi:10.1080/09636412.2015.1036624.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walter, B., 2017. The extremist’s advantage in civil wars. International Security, 42 (2), 7–39. doi:10.1162/ISEC_a_00292.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walzer, M., 1965. The revolution of the saints: a study in the origins of radical politics. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Weinstein, J., 2005. Resources and the information problem in rebel recruitment. The Journal of Conflict Resolution, 49 (4), 598–624. doi:10.1177/0022002705277802.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weinstein, J., 2007. Inside rebellion: the politics of insurgent violence. New York: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Whiteside, C., 2016. New masters of revolutionary warfare: the Islamic State movement (2002-2016). Perspectives on Terrorism, 10 (4), 6–20.
   Google Scholar
• Windisch, S., Logan, M., and Ligon, G.S., 2018. Headhunting among extremist organizations: an empirical assessment of talent spotting. Perspectives on Terrorism, 12 (2), 44–62.
   Google Scholar
• Winter, L., 2013. A modern history of the Free Syrian Army in Deraa. Fort Leavenworth: Foreign Military Studies Office.
   Google Scholar
• Wood, E.J., 2003. Insurgent collective action and civil war in El Salvador. New York: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Worsnop, A., 2017. Who can keep the peace? Insurgent organizational control of collective violence. Security Studies, 26 (3), 482–516. doi:10.1080/09636412.2017.1306397.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar