415
Views
2
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Original Articles

Apathy, not depressive symptoms, as a predictor of semantic and phonemic fluency task performance in stroke and transient ischemic attack

, , , , , , , , & show all
Pages 449-461 | Received 11 Apr 2017, Accepted 16 Aug 2017, Published online: 15 Sep 2017

References

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-5®). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association Publishing.
  • Ardila, A. (2013). There are two different dysexecutive syndromes. Journal of Neurological Disorders, 1, 114–117.
  • Baldo, J. V., Schwartz, S., Wilkins, D., & Dronkers, N. F. (2006). Role of frontal versus temporal cortex in verbal fluency as revealed by voxel-based lesion symptom mapping. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 12, 896–900.
  • Baldo, J. V., & Shimamura, A. P. (1998). Letter and category fluency in patients with frontal lobe lesions. Neuropsychology, 12, 259–267.
  • Barnhart, W. J., Makela, E. H., & Latocha, M. J. (2004). SSRI-induced apathy syndrome: A clinical review. Journal of Psychiatric Practice, 10, 196–199.
  • Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., & Brown, G. K. (1996). Manual for the Beck depression inventory-II. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.
  • Benton, A. L. (1968). Differential behavioural effects in frontal lobe disease. Neuropsychologia, 6, 53–60. doi:10.1016/0028-3932(68)90038-9
  • Bonelli, R. M., & Cummings, J. L. (2007). Frontal-subcortical circuitry and behavior. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 9, 141.
  • Bour, A., Rasquin, S., Aben, I., Boreas, A., Limburg, M., & Verhey, F. (2010). A one-year follow-up study into the course of depression after stroke. The Journal of Nutrition, Health, and Aging, 14, 488–493.
  • Brady, C. B., Spiro, A., McGlinchey-Berroth, R., Milberg, W., & Gaziano, J. M. (2001). Stroke risk predict verbal fluency decline in healthy older men: Evidence from the normative aging study. Journal of Gerontology, 56, 340–346.
  • Brodaty, H., Sachdev, P. S., Withall, A., Altendorf, A., Valenzuela, M. J., & Lorentz, L. (2005). Frequency and clinical, neuropsychological and neuroimaging correlates of apathy following stroke: The Sydney stroke study. Psychological Medicine, 35, 1707–1716.
  • Calamia, M. (2014). Measuring apathy in a neuropsychological patient sample: Factor structure and clinical correlates. Retrieved from http://ir.uiowa.edu/etd/1300
  • Carota, A., Berney, A., Aybek, S., Iaria, G., Staub, F., Ghika-Schmid, F., ... Bogousslavsky, J. (2005). A prospective study of predictors of poststroke depression. Neurology, 64, 428–433.
  • Chiaravalloti, N. D., & DeLuca, J. (2003). Assessing the behavioral consequences of multiple sclerosis: An application of the Frontal Systems Behavior Scale (FrSBe). Cognitive and Behavioural Neurology, 16, 54–67.
  • Chiarello, C. (1988). Semantic priming in the intact brain: Separate roles for the right and left hemispheres? In C. Chiarello (Ed.), Right hemisphere contribution to lexical semantics (pp. 59–69). Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
  • Cohen, A. S., Iglesias, B., & Minor, K. S. (2009). The neurocognitive underpinnings of diminished expressivity in schizotypy: What the voice reveals. Schizophrenia Research, 109, 38–45.
  • Cosin, C., Sibon, I., Poli, M., Allard, M., Debruxelles, S., Renou, P., … Mayo, W. (2015). Circadian sleep/wake rhythm abnormalities as a risk factor for poststroke apathy. International Journal of Stroke, 10, 710–715.
  • Costafreda, S. G., Fu, C. H., Lee, L., Everitt, B., Brammer, M. J., & David, A. S. (2006). A systematic review and quantitative appraisal of FMRI studies of verbal fluency: Role of the left inferior frontal gyrus. Human Brain Mapping, 27, 799–810.
  • Darvesh, S., Leach, L., Black, S. E., Kaplan, E., & Freedman, M. (2005). The behavioural neurology assessment. Canadian Journal of Neurological Sciences, 32, 167–177.
  • Drijgers, R. L., Verhey, F. R. J., Leentjens, A. F. G., Köhler, S., & Aalten, P. (2011). Neuropsychological correlates of apathy in mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer’s disease: The role of executive functioning. International Psychogeriatrics, 23, 1327–1333.
  • Dujardin, K., Sockeel, P., Delliaux, M., Destée, A., & Defebvre, L. (2009). Apathy may herald cognitive decline and dementia in Parkinson’s disease. Movement Disorder Society, 24, 2391–2397.
  • Eslinger, P. J., & Damasio, A. R. (1985). Severe disturbance of higher cognition after bilateral frontal ablation: Patient EVR. Neurology, 35, 1731–1741.
  • Ettenhofer, M. L., Hambrick, D. Z., & Abeles, N. (2006). Reliability and stability of executive functioning in older adults. Neuropsychology, 20, 607–613. doi:10.1037/0894-4105.20.5.607
  • Fisk, J. E., & Sharp, C. A. (2004). Age-related impairment in executive functioning: Updating, inhibition, shifting, and access. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 26, 874–890. doi:10.1080/13803390490510680
  • Fossati, P., Coyette, F., Ergis, A. M., & Allilaire, J. F. (2002). Influence of age and executive functioning on verbal memory of inpatients with depression. Journal of Affective Disorders, 68, 261–271.
  • Fuster, J. M. (2002). Frontal lobe and cognitive development. Journal of Neurocytology, 31, 373–385.
  • Gourovitch, M., Kirkby, B., Goldberg, T. E., Weinberger, D. R., Gold, J. M., Esposito, G., … Berman, K. F. (2000). A comparison of rCBF patterns during letter and semantic fluency. Neuropsychology, 14, 353–360.
  • Habas, C. (2010). Functional connectivity of the human rostral and caudal cingulate motor areas in the brain resting state at 3T. Neuroradiology, 52, 47.
  • Hama, S., Yamashita, H., Yamawaki, S., & Kurishu, K. (2011). Post-stroke depression and apathy: Interactions between functional recovery, lesion location, and emotional response. Psychogeriatrics, 11, 68–76.
  • Hanby, M. F., Barraclough, M., McKie, S., Hinvest, N., McDonald, K., Elliot, R., & Lerol, I. (2014). Emotional and cognitive processing deficits in people with Parkinson ’s disease and apathy. Journal of Alzheimers Disease and Parkinsonism, 4, 156. doi:10.4172/2161-0460.1000156
  • Henry, J. D., & Crawford, J. R. (2004). A meta-analytic review of verbal fluency performance in patients with traumatic brain injury. Neuropsychology, 18, 621–628.
  • Hochstenbach, J., van Spaendonck, K. P., Cools, A. R., Horrstink, M. W., & Mulder, T. (1998). Cognitive deficits following stroke in the basal ganglia. Clinical Rehabilitation, 12, 514–520.
  • Houk, J. C. (2001). Neurophysiology of frontal-subcortical loops. In D. G. Lichter & J. L. Cummings (Eds.), Frontal-subcortical circuits in psychiatric and neurological disorders (pp. 92–113). New York: Guilford Press.
  • Janzing, J. G. E., Naarding, P., & Eling, P. A. T. M. (2005). Depressive symptom quality and neuropsychological performance in dementia. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 20, 479–484.
  • Jarzebska, E. (2007). Stroke patients’ apathy. Polski Merkuriusz Lekarski, 22, 280–282.
  • Joanette, Y., & Goulet, P. (1986). Criterion-specific reduction of verbal fluency in right-brain damaged right-handers. Neuropsychologia, 24, 875–879.
  • Kaufer, D. I., Cummings, J. L., Christine, D., Bray, T., Castellon, S., Masterman, D., … DeKosky, S. T. (1998). Assessing the impact of neuropsychiatric symptoms in Alzheimer’s disease: The neuropsychiatric inventory caregiver distress scale. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 46, 210–215.
  • Kavé, G., Heled, E., Vakil, E., & Agranov, E. (2011). Which verbal fluency measure is most useful in demonstrating executive deficits after traumatic brain injury? Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 33, 358–365.
  • Kimura, M., Matsumoto, N., Okahashi, K., Ueda, Y., Satoh, T., Minamimoto, T., ... Yamada, H. (2003). Goal-directed, serial and synchronous activation of neurons in the primate striatum. Neuroreport, 14, 799–802.
  • Kouneiher, F., Charron, S., & Koechlin, E. (2009). Motivation and cognitive control in the human prefrontal cortex. Nature Neuroscience, 12, 939–945.
  • Kraus, M. F., & Maki, P. M. (1997). The combined use of amantadine and L-dopa/carbidopa in the treatment of chronic brain injury. Brain Injury, 11, 455–459.
  • Lanctôt, K. L., Chau, S. A., Herrmann, N., Drye, L. T., Rosenberg, P. B., Scherer, R. W., … Mintzer, J. E. (2014). Effect of methylphenidate on attention in apathetic AD patients in a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. International Psychogeriatrics, 26, 239–246.
  • Leach, L., Kaplan, E., Rewilak, D., Richards, B., & Proulx, G. (2000). Kaplan Baycrest Neurocognitive Assessment Manual. Texas: Psychological Corporation.
  • Lee, S. I., & Keltner, N. L. (2005). Antidepressant apathy syndrome. Perspectives in Psychiatric Care, 41, 188–192.
  • Levy, R. (2012). Apathy: A pathology of goal-directed behaviour. Revue Neurologique, 168, 585–97.
  • Levy, R., & Dubois, B. (2005). Apathy and the functional anatomy of the prefrontal cortex–basal ganglia circuits. Cerebral Cortex, 16, 916–928.
  • Lewinsohn, P. M., Seeley, J. R., Roberts, R. E., & Allen, N. B. (1997). Center for Epidemiological Studies-Depression Scale (CES-D) as a screening instrument for depression among community-residing older adults. Psychology and Aging, 12, 277–287.
  • Lezak, M. D., Howieson, D. B., Loring, D. W., Hannay, H. J., & Fischer, J. S. (2004). Neuropsychological assessment: Fourth edition. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
  • Liang, Y., Liang, H. J., Ungvari, G. S., & Tang, W. K. (2016). Behavioral dysexecutive syndrome after stroke. Stroke Research and Therapy, 1, 1.
  • Litvan, I. (2001). Personality and behavioral changes with frontal-subcortical dysfunction. In D. G. Lichter & J. L. Cummings (Eds.), Frontal-subcortical circuits in psychiatric and neurological disorders (pp. 151–162). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
  • Loring, D. W., Meador, K. J., & Lee, G. P. (1994). Effects of temporal lobectomy on generative fluency and other language functions. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 9, 229–238.
  • Margulies, D. S., Kelly, A. C., Uddin, L. Q., Biswal, B. B., Castellanos, F. X., & Milham, M. P. (2007). Mapping the functional connectivity of anterior cingulate cortex. Neuroimage, 37, 579–588.
  • Marin, R. S. (1991). Apathy: A neuropsychiatric syndrome. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 3, 243–254. doi:10.1176/jnp.3.3.243
  • Marin, R. S., Biedrzycki, R. C., & Firinciogullari, S. (1991). Reliability and validity of the apathy evaluation scale. Psychiatry Research, 38, 143–162.
  • Marin, R. S., Firinciogullari, S., & Biedrzycki, R. C. (1993). The sources of convergence between measures of apathy and depression. Journal of Affective Disorders, 28, 117–124.
  • Marin, R. S., Firinciogullari, S., & Biedrzycki, R. C. (1994). Group differences in the relationship between apathy and depression. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 182, 235–239.
  • Martin, R. C., Loring, D. W., Meador, K. J., & Lee, G. P. (1990). The effects of lateralized temporal lobe dysfunction on formal and semantic word fluency. Neuropsychologia, 28, 823–829.
  • Masai, M., Pu, S., Yokoyama, K., Matsumura, H., Yamanashi, T., Itakura, M., ... Kaneko, K. (2016). Residual symptoms were differentially associated with brain function in remitted patients with major depressive disorders. Yonago Acta Medica, 59, 15.
  • Mason, S., & Barker, R. A. (2015). Rating apathy in huntington's disease: Patients and companions agree. Journal of Huntington's Disease, 4, 49–59.
  • Meyer, A., Zimmermann, R., Gschwandtner, U., Hatz, F., Bousleiman, H., Schwarz, N., & Fuhr, P. (2015). Apathy in Parkinson’s disease is related to executive function, gender and age but not to depression. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 6, 135–140.
  • Middleton, F. A., & Strick, P. L. (2000). Basal ganglia output and cognition: Evidence from anatomical, behavioral, and clinical studies. Brain and Cognition, 42, 183–200.
  • Milner, B. (1964). Some effects of frontal lobectomy in man. In J. M. Warren & K. Akert (Eds.), The Frontal Granular Cortex and Behavior. New York: McGraw-Hill.
  • Miyake, A., & Friedman, N. P. (2012). The nature and organization of individual differences in executive functions: Four general conclusions. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 21, 8–14. doi:10.1177/0963721411429458
  • Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Hwerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “Frontal Lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41, 49–100.
  • Naarding, P., de Koning, I., van Kooten, F., Janzing, J. G. E., Beekman, A. T. F., & Koudstaal, P. J. (2007). Post-stroke dementia and depression: Frontosubcortical dysfunction as missing link? International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 22, 1–8.
  • Newcombe, F. (1969). Missle wounds of the brain: A study of psychological deficits. London: Oxford University Press.
  • Njomboro, P., & Deb, S. (2012). Poor dissociation of patient-evaluated apathy and depressive symptoms. Current Gerontology and Geriatric Research, 2012, 1–8.
  • Okada, G., Okamoto, Y., Morinobu, S., Yamawaki, S., & Yokota, N. (2003). Attenuated left prefrontal activation during a verbal fluency task in patients with depression. Neuropsychobiology, 47, 21–26.
  • Okada, K., Kobayashi, S., Yamagata, S., Takahashi, K., & Yamaguchi, S. (1997). Poststroke apathy and regional cerebral blood flow. Stroke, 28, 2437–2441.
  • Onoda, K., Kuroda, Y., Yamamoto, Y., Abe, S., Oguro, H., Nagai, A., … Yamaguchi, S. (2011). Post-stroke apathy and hypoperfusion in basal ganglia: SPECT study. Cerebrovascular Disorders, 31, 6–11.
  • Pettit, L., McCarthy, M., Davenport, R., & Abrahams, S. (2013). Heterogeneity of letter fluency impairment and executive dysfunction in Parkinson’s disease. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 19, 986–994.
  • Powell, J., Al-Adawi, S., Morgan, J., & Greenwood, R. (1996). Motivational deficits after brain injury: Effects of bromocriptine in 11 patients. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 60, 416–421.
  • Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D Scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1, 385–401.
  • Rafnsson, S. B., Deary, I. J., Smith, F. B., Whiteman, M. C., & Fowkes, F. G. (2007). Cardiovascular diseases and decline in cognitive function in an elderly community population: The Edinburgh Artery Study. Psychosomatic Medicine, 69, 425–434. doi:10.1097/psy.0b013e318068fce4
  • Rende, B., Ramsberger, G., & Miyake, A. (2002). Commonalities and differences in the working memory components underlying letter and category fluency tasks: A dual-task investigation. Neuropsychology, 16(3), 309.
  • Repovs, G., & Baddeley, A. (2006). The multi-component model of working memory: Explorations in experimental cognitive psychology. Neuroscience, 139, 5–21.
  • Reynolds, W. M., & Kobak, K. A. (1995). Reliability and validity of the Hamilton Depression Inventory: A paper-and-pencil version of the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale Clinical Interview. Psychological Assessment, 7, 472–483.
  • Robinson, G., Shallice, T., Bozzali, M., & Cipolotti, L. (2012). The differing roles of the frontal cortex in fluency tests. Brain, 135, 2202–2214.
  • Rosenberg, P. B., Lanctôt, K. L., Drye, L. T., Herrmann, N., Scherer, R. W., & Bachman, D. L.; ADMET Investigators. (2013). Safety and efficacy of methylphenidate for apathy in Alzheimer’s disease: A randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 74, 810–816.
  • Roth, D. L., Ackerman, M. L., Okonkwo, O. C., & Burgio, L. D. (2008). The four-factor model of depressive symptoms in dementia caregivers: A structural equation model of ethnic differences. Psychology and Aging, 23, 567–576.
  • Sagen, U, Finset, A, Moum, T, Mørland, T, Vik, T. G, Nagy, T, & Dammen, T. (2010). Early detection of patients at risk for anxiety, depression and apathy after stroke. General Hospital Psychiatry, 32, 80-85.
  • Sallet, J., Mars, R. B., Quilodran, R., Procyk, E., Petrides, M., & Rushworth, M. F. S. (2011). Neuroanatomical basis of motivational and cognitive control: A focus on the medial and lateral prefrontal cortex. In R. B. Mars, J. Sallet, M. F. S. Rushworth, & N. Yeung (Eds.), Neural basis of motivational and cognitive control (pp. 5–20). Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
  • Santa, N., Sugimori, H., Kusuda, K., Yamashita, Y., Ibayashi, S., & Iida, M. (2008). Apathy and functional recovery following first-ever stroke. International Journal of Rehabilitation Research, 31, 321–326.
  • Sass, K., Fetz, K., Oetken, S., Habel, U., & Heim, S. (2013). Emotional verbal fluency: A new task on emotion and executive function interaction. Behavioral Sciences, 3, 372–387.
  • Sauzeon, H., Raboutet, C., Rodrigues, J., Langevin, S., Schelstraete, A., Feyereisen, P., ... N’Kaoua, B. (2011). Verbal knowledge as a compensation determinant of adult age differences in verbal fluency tasks over time. Journal of Adult Development, 18, 144–154. doi:10.1007/s10804-010-9107-6
  • Schmidt, C. S., Schumacher, L. V., Römer, P., Leonhart, R., Beume, L., Martin, M., ... Kaller, C. P. (2017). Are semantic and phonological fluency based on the same or distinct sets of cognitive processes? Insights from factor analyses in healthy adults and stroke patients. Neuropsychologia, 99, 148–155.
  • Schwartz, S., & Baldo, J. (2001). Distinct patterns of word retrieval in right and left frontal lobe patients: A multidimensional perspective. Neuropsychologia, 39, 1209–1217.
  • Searleman, A. (1977). A review of the right hemisphere linguistic capabilities. Psychological Bulletin, 84, 503–528.
  • Shallice, T., & Burgess, P. W. (1991). Deficits in strategy application following frontal lobe damage in man. Brain, 114, 727–741.
  • Shapiro, M. E., Mahoney, J. R., Zingman, B. S., Pogge, D. L., & Verghese, J. (2013). Apathy correlates with cognitive performance, functional disability, and HIV RNA plasma levels in HIV-positive individuals. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 35, 934–945. doi:10.1080/13803395.2013.838941
  • Starkstein, S. E., Fedoroff, J. P., Price, T. R., Leiguarda, R., & Robinson, R. G. (1993). Apathy following cerebrovascular lesions. Stroke, 24, 1625–1630.
  • Starkstein, S. E., Mayberg, H. S., Preziosi, T. J., Andrezejewski, P., Leiguarda, R., & Robinson, R. G. (1992). Reliability, validity, and clinical correlates of apathy in Parkinson’s disease. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 4, 134–139.
  • Starkstein, S. E., Petracca, G., Chemerinski, E., & Kremer, J. (2001). Syndromic validity of apathy in Alzheimer’s disease. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 872–877.
  • Stolar, N., Berenbaum, H., Banich, M. T., & Barch, D. (1994). Neuropsychological correlates of alogia and affective flattening in schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry, 35, 164-172.
  • Stuss, D. T., Alexander, M. P., Palumbo, C. L., Buckle, L., Sayer, L., & Pogue, J. (1994). Organizational strategies of patients with unilateral or bilateral frontal lobe injury in word list learning tasks. Neuropsychology, 8, 355–373.
  • Stuss, D. T., van Reekum, R., & Murphy, K. J. (2000). Differentiation of states and causes of apathy. In J. C. Borod (Ed.), The Neuropsychology of Emotion (pp. 191–213). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
  • Tatemichi, T. K., Desmond, D. W., Stern, Y., Paik, M., Sano, M., & Bagiella, E. (1994). Cognitive impairment after stroke: Frequency, patterns, and relationship to functional abilities. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 57, 202–207.
  • Tekin, S., & Cummings, J. L. (2002). Frontal–subcortical neuronal circuits and clinical neuropsychiatry: An update. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 53, 647–654.
  • Tombaugh, T. N., Kozak, J., & Rees, L. (1999). Normative data stratified by age and education for two measures of verbal fluency: FAS and animal naming. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 14, 167–177.
  • Toyoda, G., Saika, R., Aoyama, A., Abe, S., Mitaki, S., Kouno, N., ...Yamaguchi, S. (2011). The effect of cilostazol on apathy after cerebral infarction. Nosotchu, 33, 182–184.
  • Troyer, A. K., & Moscovitch, M. (2006). Cognitive processes of verbal fluency tasks. In A. M. Poreh (ed.), The quantified process approach to neuropsychological assessment (pp. 143–160). Philadelphia, PA: Taylor & Francis.
  • Troyer, A. K., Moscovitch, M., & Winocur, G. (1997). Clustering and switching as two components of verbal fluency: Evidence from younger and older healthy adults. Neuropsychology, 11, 138–146.
  • van Dalen, J. W., Moll van Charante, E. P., Nederkoorn, P. J., van Gool, W. A., & Richard, E. (2013). Poststroke apathy. Stroke, 44, 851–860.
  • Van der Werf, Y. D., Scheltens, P., Lindeboom, J., Witter, M. P., Uylings, H. B., & Jolles, J. (2003). Deficits of memory, executive functioning and attention following infarction in the thalamus; a study of 22 cases with localised lesions. Neuropsychologia, 41, 1330–1344.
  • van Reekum, R., Stuss, D. T., & Ostrander, L. (2005). Apathy: Why care? Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 17, 7–19.
  • Veiel, H. O. F. (1997). A preliminary profile of neuropsychological deficits associated with major depression. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 19, 587–603.
  • Viswanathan, A., Macklin, E. A., Bentensky, R., Hyman, B., Smith, E. E., & Blacker, D. (2015). The influence of vascular risk factors and stroke on cognition in later life: Analysis of the NACC cohort. Alzheimer Disease and Associated Disorders, 29, 287–293.
  • Weinstein, G., Preis, S. R., Beiser, A. S., Au, R., Kelly-Hayes, M., Kase, C. S., ... Seshadri, S. (2014). Cognitive performance after stroke: The Framingham Heart Study. International Journal of Stroke, 48-54.
  • Wongpakaran, N., van Reekum, R., Wongpakaran, T., & Clarke, D. (2007). Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor use associates with apathy among depressed elderly: A case-control study. Annals of General Psychiatry, 6, 7. doi:10.1186/1744-859X-6-7
  • Wu, K. Y., Liu, C. Y., Chau, Y. L., & Chang, C. M. (2010). Transient ischemic attack and incidence of depression in old age: Evidence from a population-based analysis in Taiwan. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 18, 382–387.
  • Yamagata, S., Yamaguchi, S., & Kobayashi, S. (2004). Impaired novelty processing in apathy after subcortical stroke. Stroke, 35, 1935–1940.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.