References
- Alverson, W. A., O’Rourke, J. J. F., & Soble, J. R. (2019). The word memory test genuine memory impairment profile discriminates genuine memory impairment from invalid performance in a mixed clinical sample with cognitive impairment. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 8(8), 1420–1435. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2019.1599071
- American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-5). American Psychiatric Publishing.
- Ashendorf, L., Clark, E. L., & Sugarman, M. A. (2017). Performance validity and processing speed in a VA polytrauma sample. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 31(5), 857–866. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2017.1285961
- Babikian, T., Boone, K. B., Lu, P., & Arnold, G. (2006). Sensitivity and specificity of various digit span scores in the detection of suspect effort. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 20(1), 145–159. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854040590947362
- Bailey, K. C., Soble, J. R., Bain, K. M., & Fullen, C. (2018). Embedded performance validity tests in the Hopkins verbal learning test – revised and the brief visuospatial memory test – revised: A replication study. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 33(7), 895–900. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acx111
- Benjamini, Y., & Hochberg, Y. (1995). Controlling the false discovery rate: A practical and powerful approach to multiple testing. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society. Series B (Methodological), 57(7), 289–300. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2517-6161.1995.tb02031.x
- Bondi, M. W., Salmon, D. P., & Kaszniak, A. W. (2009). The neuropsychology of dementia. In I. Grant & K. M. Adams (Eds.), Neuropsychological assessment of neuropsychiatric and neuromedical disorders (3rd ed ed., pp. 159–198). Oxford.
- Boone, K., Lu, P., & Herzberg, D. S. (2002a). The b test manual. Western Psychological Services.
- Boone, K. B. (2009). The need for continuous and comprehensive sampling of effort/response bias during neuropsychological examinations. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 23(4), 729–741. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854040802427803
- Boone, K. B. (2013). Clinical practice of forensic neuropsychology: An evidenced-based approach. Guilford Press.
- Boone, K. B., Lu, P., & Herzberg, D. (2002b). The dot counting test manual. Western Psychological Services.
- Boone, K. B., Salazar, X., Lu, P., Warner-Chacon, K., & Razani, J. (2002c). The rey 15-item recognition trial: A technique to enhance sensitivity of the rey 15-item memorization test. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 24(5), 561–573.
- Bush, S. S., Ruff, R. M., Troster, A. I., Barth, J. T., Koffler, S. P., Pliskin, N. H., … Silver, C. H. (2005). Symptom validity assessment: Practice issues and medical necessity. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 20(4), 419–426. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acn.2005.02.002
- Busse, M., & Whiteside, D. (2012). Detecting suboptimal cognitive effort: Classification accuracy of the Conner’s continuous performance test-II, brief test of attention, and trail making test. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 26(4), 675–687. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2012.679623
- Chiaravalloti, N. D., & DeLuca, J. (2008). Cognitive impairment in multiple sclerosis. The Lancet Neurology, 7(12), 1139–1151. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(08)70259-X
- Dean, A. C., Victor, T. L., Boone, K. B., Philpott, L. M., & Hess, R. A. (2009). Dementia and effort test performance. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 23(1), 133–152. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854040701819050
- Denning, J. H. (2012). The efficiency and accuracy of the test of memory malingering trial 1, errors on the first 10 items of the test of memory malingering, and five embedded measures in predicting invalid test performance. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 27(4), 417–432. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acs044
- Dikmen, S. S., Corrigan, J. D., Levin, H. S., MacHamer, J., Stiers, W., & Weisskopf, M. G. (2009). Cognitive outcome following traumatic brain injury. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 24(6), 430–438. https://doi.org/10.1097/HTR.0b013e3181c133e9
- Erdodi, L. A., Abeare, C. A., Lichtenstein, J. D., Tyson, B. T., Kucharski, B., Zuccato, B. G., & Roth, R. M. (2017). Wechsler adult intelligence scale-fourth edition (WAIS-IV) processing speed scores as measures of noncredible responding: The third generation of embedded performance validity indicators. Psychological Assessment, 29(2), 148–157. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000319
- Erdodi, L. A., & Lichtenstein, J. D. (2017). Invalid before impaired: An emerging paradox of embedded validity indicators. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 31(6–7), 1029–1046. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2017.1323119
- Etherton, J., Bianchini, K., Ciota, M., Heinly, M. T., & Greve, K. (2006a). Pain, malingering and the WAIS-III working memory index. The Spine Journal, 6(1), 61–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spinee.2005.05.382
- Etherton, J., Bianchini, K., Heinly, M. T., & Greve, K. (2006b). Pain, malingering, and performance on theWAIS-III processing speed index. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 28(7), 1218–1237. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803390500346595
- Fuermaier, A., Tucha, O., Stenger, H., Koerts, J., Aschenbrenner, S., & Tucha, L. (2017). Test manual: The groningen effort test (GET). Schuhfried.
- Gabel, N. M., Waldron-Perrine, B., Spencer, R. J., Pangilinan, P. H., Hale, A. C., & Bieliauskas, L. A. (2019). Suspiciously slow: Timed digit span as an embedded performance validity measure in a sample of veterans with mTBI. Brain Injury, 33(3), 377–382. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699052.2018.1553311
- Glassmire, D. M., Toofanian Ross, P., Kinney, D., & Nitch, S. R. (2016). Derivation and cross-validation of cutoff scores for patients with schizophrenia spectrum disorders on WAIS-IV digit span-based performance validity measures. Assessment, 23(3), 292–306. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191115587551
- Glassmire, D. M., Wood, M. E., Ta, M. T., Kinney, D. I., & Nitch, S.R. (2019). Examining false-positive rates of Wechsler adult intelligence scale (WAIS-IV) processing speed-based embedded validity indicators among individuals with schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Psychological assessment, 31(1),120–125. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000650
- Glickman, M. E., Rao, S. R., & Schultz, M. R. (2014). False discovery rate control is a recommended alternative to Bonferroni-type adjustments in health studies. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 67(8), 850–857. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclinepi.2014.03.012
- Green, P. (2003). Green‘s word memory test for windows: User‘s manual. Green’s Publishing.
- Greiffenstein, M. F., Baker, W. J., & Gola, T. (1994). Validation of malingered amnesia measures with a large clinical sample. Psychological Assessment, 6(3), 218. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.6.3.218
- Greve, K. W., Heinly, M. T., Bianchini, K. J., & Love, J. M. (2009). Malingering detection with the Wisconsin card sorting test in mild traumatic brain injury. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 23(2), 343–362. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854040802054169
- Gunzler, S. A., Schoenberg, M. R., Riley, D. R., Walter, B., & Maciunas, R. J. (2011). Parkinson’s disease and other movement disorders. In M. R. Schoenberg & J. G. Scott (Eds.), The little black book of neuropsychology: A syndrome-based approach. (pp. 567–646). Springer.
- Heilbronner, R. L., Sweet, J. J., Morgan, J. E., Larrabee, G., Millis, S. R., & Participants, C. (2009). American academy of clinical neuropsychology consensus conference statement on the neuropsychological assessment of effort, response bias, and malingering. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 23(7), 1093–1129. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854040903155063
- Henry, G. K., & Algina, J. (2013). Use of the color trails test as an embedded measure of performance validity. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 27(5), 864–876. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2013.786758
- Hillary, F. G., Genova, H. M., Medaglia, J. D., Fitzpatrick, N. M., Chiou, K. S., Wardecker, B. M., Franklin, R. G., Wang, J., & DeLuca, J. (2010). The nature of processing speed deficits in traumatic brain injury: Is less brain more? Brain Imaging and Behavior, 4(2), 141–154. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11682-010-9094-z
- Jasinski, L. J., Berry, D. T. R., Shandera, A. L., & Clark, J. A. (2011). Use of the Wechsler adult intelligence scale digit span subtest for malingering detection: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 33(3), 300–314. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2010.516743
- Jones, A. (2013). Victoria symptom validity test: Cutoff scores for psychometrically defined malingering groups in a military sample. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 27(8), 1373–1394. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2013.851740
- Kanser, R. J., Rapport, L. J., Bashem, J. R., & Hanks, R. A. (2019). Detecting malingering in traumatic brain injury: Combining response time with performance validity test accuracy. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 33(1), 90–107. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2018.1440006
- King, J. H., Sweet, J. J., Sherer, M., Curtiss, G., & Vanderploeg, R. D. (2002). Validity indicators within the Wisconsin card sorting test: Application of new and previously researched multivariate procedures in multiple traumatic brain injury samples. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 16(4), 506–523. https://doi.org/10.1076/clin.16.4.506.13912
- Lange, R. T., Iverson, G. L., Brickell, T. A., Staver, T., Pancholi, S., Bhagwat, A., & French, L. M. (2013). Clinical utility of the Conners’ continuous performance test-II to detect poor effort in U.S. military personnel following traumatic brain injury. Psychological Assessment, 25(2), 339–352. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030915
- Larrabee, G. J. (2008). Aggregation across multiple indicators improves the detection of malingering: Relationship to likelihood ratios. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 22(4), 666–679. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854040701494987
- Lippa, S. M. (2018). Performance validity testing in neuropsychology: A clinical guide, critical review, and update on a rapidly evolving literature. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 32(3), 391–421. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2017.1406146
- Loring, D. W., Strauss, E., Hermann, B. P., Barr, W. B., Perrine, K., Trenerry, M. R., … Bowden, S. C. (2008). Differential neuropsychological test sensitivity to left temporal lobe epilepsy. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 14(3), 394–400. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617708080582
- Lu, P. H., Rogers, S. A., & Boone, K. B. (2007). Use of standard memory tests to detect suspect effort. In K. B. Boone (Ed.), Assessment of feigned cognitive impairment: A neuropsychological perspective (pp. 128–151). Guilford.
- Martin, P. K., Schroeder, R. W., & Odland, A. P. (2015). Neuropsychologists’ validity testing beliefs and practices: A survey of North American professionals. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 29(6), 741–776. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2015.1087597
- Martin, P. K., Schroeder, R. W., Olsen, D. H., Malloy, H., Boettcher, A., Ernst, N., & Okut, H. (2020). A systematic review and meta-analysis of the test of memory malingering in adults: Two decades of deception detection. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 34(1), 88–119. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2019.1637027
- Meyers, J. E., Miller, R. M., Thompson, L. M., Scalese, A. M., Allred, B. C., Rupp, Z. W., … Junghyun Lee, A. (2014). Using likelihood ratios to detect invalid performance with performance validity measures. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 29(3), 224–235. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acu001
- Odland, A. P., Lammy, A. B., Martin, P. K., Grote, C. L., & Mittenberg, W. (2015). Advanced administration and interpretation of multiple validity tests. Psychological Injury and Law, 8(1), 46–63. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12207-015-9216-4
- Schutte, C., & Axelrod, B. N. (2013). Use of embedded cognitive symptom validity measures in mild traumatic brain injury cases. In D. A. Carone & S. S. Bush (Eds.), Mild traumatic brain injury: Symptom validity assessment and malingering (pp. 159–181). Springer.
- Schwartz, E. S., Erdodi, L., Rodriguez, N., Ghosh, J. J., Curtain, J. R., Flashman, L. A., & Roth, R. M. (2016). CVLT-II forced choice recognition trial as an embedded validity indicator: A systematic review of the evidence. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 22(8), 851–858. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617716000746
- Shura, R. D., Martindale, S. L., Taber, K. H., Higgins, A. M., & Rowland, J. A. (2019). Digit span embedded validity indicators in neurologically-intact veterans. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 1–13. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2019.1635209
- Shura, R. D., Miskey, H. M., Rowland, J. A., Yoash-Gantz, R. E., & Denning, J. H. (2016). Embedded performance validity measures with postdeployment veterans: Cross-validation and efficiency with multiple measures. Applied Neuropsychology. Adult, 23(2), 94–104. https://doi.org/10.1080/23279095.2015.1014556
- Silk-Eglit, G. M., Lynch, J. K., & McCaffrey, R. J. (2016). Validation of victoria symptom validity test cutoff scores among mild traumatic brain injury litigants using a known-groups design. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 31(3), 231–245. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acv108
- Soble, J. R., Bain, K. M., Bailey, K. C., Kirton, J. W., Marceaux, J. C., Critchfield, E. A., & O’Rourke, J. J. F. (2019). Evaluating the accuracy of the Wechsler memory scale-fourth edition (WMS-IV) logical memory embedded validity index for detecting invalid test performance. Applied Neuropsychology. Adult, 26(4), 311–318. https://doi.org/10.1080/23279095.2017.1418744
- Soble, J. R., Critchfield, E. C., & O’Rourke, J. J. F. (2017). Neuropsychological evaluation in TBI. [Special issue]. Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Clinics of North America, 28(2), 339–350. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmr.2016.12.009
- Spencer, R. J., Axelrod, B. N., Drag, L. L., Waldron-Perrine, B., Pangilinan, P. H., & Bieliauskas, L. A. (2013). WAIS-IV reliable digit span is no more accurate than age corrected scaled score as an indicator of invalid performance in a veteran sample undergoing evaluation for mTBI. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 27(8), 1362–1372. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2013.845248
- Stevens, A., Bahlo, S., Licha, C., Liske, B., & Vossler-Thies, E. (2016). Reaction time as an indicator of insufficient effort: Development and validation of an embedded performance validity parameter. Psychiatry Research, 245, 74–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2016.08.022
- Sugarman, M. A., & Axelrod, B. N. (2015). Embedded measures of performance validity using verbal fluency tests in a clinical sample. Applied Neuropsychology. Adult, 22(2), 141–146. https://doi.org/10.1080/23279095.2013.873439
- Swets, J. A. (1988). Measuring the accuracy of diagnostic systems. Science, 240(4857), 1285–1293. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.3287615
- Tan, J. E., Slick, D. J., Strauss, E., & Hultsch, D. F. (2002). How’d they do it? Malingering strategies on symptom validity tests. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 16(4), 495–505. https://doi.org/10.1076/clin.16.4.495.13909
- Webber, T. A., Critchfield, E. A., & Soble, J. R. (2018). Convergent, discriminant, and concurrent validity of non-memory-based performance validity tests. Assessment. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191118804874
- Webber, T. A., & Soble, J. R. (2018). Utility of various WAIS-IV digit span indices for identifying noncredible performance validity among cognitively impaired and unimpaired examinees. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 32(4), 657–670. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2017.1415374
- Wechsler, D. (1997). Wechsler adult intelligence scale – third edition (WAIS-III): Administration and scoring manual. The Psychological Corporation.
- Wechsler, D. (2008). Wechsler adult intelligence scale – fourth edition (WAIS-IV): Administration and scoring manual. Pearson Clinical Assessment.
- Willcutt, E. G. (2010). Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity disorder. In K. O. Yeates, M. D. Ris, H. G. Taylor, & B. F. Pennington (Eds.), Pediatric neuropsychology: Research, theory, and practice (2nd ed ed., pp. 393–417). Guildford.
- Young, J. C., Caron, J. E., Baughman, B. C., & Sawyer, R. J. (2012). Detection of suboptimal effort with symbol span: Development of a new embedded index. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 27(2), 159–164. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acr109
- Young, J. C., Roper, B. L., & Arentsen, T. J. (2016). Validity testing and neuropsychology practice in the VA healthcare system: Results from recent practitioner survey. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 30(4), 497–514. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2016.1159730