References
- Abramson, D. A., Resch, Z. J., Ovsiew, G. P., White, D. J., Bernstein, M. T., Basurto, K. S., & Soble, J. R. (2020). Impaired or invalid? Limitations of assessing performance validity using the Boston naming test. Applied Neuropsychology: Adult. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/23279095.2020.1774378
- Alverson, W. A., O’Rourke, J. J. F., & Soble, J. R. (2019). The Word Memory Test genuine memory impairment profile discriminates genuine memory impairment from invalid performance in a mixed clinical sample with cognitive impairment. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 33(8), 1420–1435. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2019.1599071
- Bailey, K. C., Soble, J. R., Bain, K. M., & Fullen, C. (2018). Embedded performance validity tests in the Hopkins verbal learning test – Revised and the brief visuospatial memory test – Revised: A replication study. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 33(7), 895–900. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acx111
- Bain, K. M., Soble, J. R., Webber, T. A., Messerly, J. M., Bailey, K. C., Kirton, J. W., & McCoy, K. J. M. (2021). Cross-validation of three advanced clinical solutions performance validity tests: Examining combinations of measures to maximize classification of invalid performance. Applied Neuropsychology: Adult, 28(1), 24–34. https://doi.org/10.1080/23279095.2019.1585352
- Bernstein, M. T., Resch, Z. J., Ovsiew, G. P., & Soble, J. R. (2021). A systematic review and meta-analysis of the diagnostic accuracy of the advanced clinical solutions word choice test as a performance validity test. Neuropsychology Review, 31(2), 349–359. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11065-020-09468-y
- Boone, K. B. (2007). Assessment of feigned cognitive impairment: A neuropsychological perspective. Guildford Press.
- Boone, K. B. (2009). The need for continuous and comprehensive sampling of effort/response bias during neuropsychological examinations. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 23(4), 729–741. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854040802427803
- Boone, K. B. (2013). Clinical practice of forensic neuropsychology: An evidence-based approach. Guilford Press.
- Boone, K. B., Lu, P., & Herzberg, D. S. (2002). The dot counting test manual. Western Psychological Services.
- Buddin, W. H., Schroeder, R. W., Hargrave, D. D., Von Dran, E. J., Campbell, E. B., Brockman, C. J., Heinrichs, R. J., & Baade, L. E. (2014). An examination of the frequency of invalid forgetting on the test of memory malingering. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 28(3), 525–542. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2014.906658
- Bush, S. S., Ruff, R. M., Tröster, A. I., Barth, J. T., Koffler, S. P., Pliskin, N. H., Reynolds, C. R., & Silver, C. H. (2005). Symptom validity assessment: Practice issues and medical necessity. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 20(4), 419–426. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acn.2005.02.002
- Constantinou, M., Bauer, L., Ashendorf, L., Fisher, J. M., & McCaffrey, R. J. (2005). Is poor performance on recognition memory effort measures indicative of generalized poor performance on neuropsychological tests? Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 20(2), 191–198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acn.2004.06.002
- Critchfield, E., Soble, J. R., Marceaux, J. C., Bain, K. M., Bailey, K. C., Webber, T. A., Alex Alverson, W., Messerly, J., Andrés González, D., & O’Rourke, J. J. F. (2019). Cognitive impairment does not cause invalid performance: Analyzing performance patterns among cognitively unimpaired, impaired, and noncredible participants across six performance validity tests. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 33(6), 1083–1101. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2018.1508615
- Dandachi-FitzGerald, B., Merckelbach, H., & Ponds, R. W. (2017). Neuropsychologists’ ability to predict distorted symptom presentation. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 39(3), 257–264. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2016.1223278
- Dean, A. C., Victor, T. L., Boone, K. B., Philpott, L. M., & Hess, R. A. (2009). Dementia and effort test performance. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 23(1), 133–152. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854040701819050
- Demakis, G. J., Gervais, R. O., & Rohling, M. L. (2008). The effect of failure on cognitive and psychological symptom validity tests in litigants with symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 22(5), 879–895. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854040701564482
- Denning, J. H. (2012). The efficiency and accuracy of the test of memory malingering trial 1, errors on the first 10 items of the test of memory malingering, and five embedded measures in predicting invalid test performance. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 27(4), 417–432. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acs044
- Fazio, R. L., Denning, J. H., & Denney, R. L. (2017). TOMM trial 1 as a performance validity indicator in a criminal forensic sample. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 31(1), 251–267. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2016.1213316
- Green, P. (2004). Green’s medical symptom validity test (MSVT) for Microsoft Windows: User’s manual.
- Green, P., Rohling, M. L., Lees-Haley, P. R., & Allen, L. A., III. (2001). Effort has a greater effect on test scores than severe brain injury in compensation claimants. Brain Injury, 15(12), 1045–1060. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699050110088254
- Greve, K. W., Ord, J., Curtis, K. L., Bianchini, K. J., & Brennan, A. (2008). Detecting malingering in traumatic brain injury and chronic pain: A comparison of three forced-choice symptom validity tests. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 22(5), 896–918. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854040701565208
- Heilbronner, R. L., Sweet, J. J., Morgan, J. E., Larrabee, G., Millis, S. R., & Participants, C. (2009). American academy of clinical neuropsychology consensus conference statement on the neuropsychological assessment of effort, response bias, and malingering. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 23(7), 1093–1129. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854040903155063
- Hosmer, D. W., Lemeshow, S., & Sturdivant, R. X. (2013). Applied logistic regression (3rd ed.). John Wiley & Sons.
- Jennette, K. J., Williams, C. P., Resch, Z. J., Ovsiew, G. P., Durkin, N. M., O’Rourke, J. J. F., Marceaux, J. C., Critchfield, E. A., & Soble, J. R. (2021). Assessment of differential neurocognitive performance based on the number of performance validity test failures: A cross-validation study across multiple mixed clinical samples. The Clinical Neuropsychologist. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2021.1900398
- Kraemer, L. D. R., Soble, J. R., Phillips, J. I., Webber, T. A., Fullen, C. T., Highsmith, J. M., Alverson, W. A., & Critchfield, E. C. (2020). Minimizing evaluation time while maintaining accuracy: Cross-validation of the test of memory malingering (TOMM) trial 1 and first 10-item errors as briefer performance validity tests. Psychological Assessment, 32(5), 442–450. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000802
- Larrabee, G. J. (2003). Detection of malingering using atypical performance patterns on standard neuropsychological tests. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 17(3), 410–425. https://doi.org/10.1076/clin.17.3.410.18089
- Larrabee, G. J. (2007). Assessment of malingered neuropsychological deficits. Oxford University Press.
- Larrabee, G. J. (2008). Aggregation across multiple indicators improves the detection of malingering: Relationship to likelihood ratios. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 22(4), 666–679. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854040701494987
- Larrabee, G. J. (2014). False-positive rates associated with the use of multiple performance and symptom validity tests. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 29(4), 364–373. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acu019
- Larrabee, G. J., Millis, S. R., & Meyers, J. E. (2009). 40 plus or minus 10, a new magical number: Reply to Russell. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 23(5), 841–849. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854040902796735
- Lezak, M. D., Howieson, D. B., Bigler, E. D., & Tranel, D. (2012). Neuropsychological assessment (5th ed.). Oxford University Press.
- Lippa, S. M. (2018). Performance validity testing in neuropsychology: A clinical guide, critical review, and update on a rapidly evolving literature. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 32(3), 391–421. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2017.1406146
- Loring, D. W., Goldstein, F. C., Chen, C., Drane, D. L., Lah, J. J., Zhao, L., & Larrabee, G. J., & Alzheimer’s Disease Neuroimaging Initiative. (2016). False-positive error rates for reliable digit span and auditory verbal learning test performance validity measures in amnestic mild cognitive impairment and early Alzheimer disease. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 31(4), 313–331. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acw014
- Martin, P. K., Schroeder, R. W., & Odland, A. P. (2015). Neuropsychologists’ validity testing beliefs and practices: A survey of North American professionals. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 29(6), 741–776. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2015.1087597
- Meyers, J. E., Volbrecht, M., Axelrod, B. N., & Reinsch-Boothby, L. (2011). Embedded symptom validity tests and overall neuropsychological test performance. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 26(1), 8–15. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acq083
- Mittenberg, W., Patton, C., Canyock, E. M., & Condit, D. C. (2002). Base rates of malingering and symptom exaggeration. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 24(8), 1094–1102. https://doi.org/10.1076/jcen.24.8.1094.8379
- Neale, A. C., Ovsiew, G. P., Resch, Z. J., & Soble, J. R. (2020). Feigning or forgetfulness: The effect of memory impairment severity on word choice test performance. The Clinical Neuropsychologist. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2020.1799076
- Nelson, N. W., & Doane, B. M. (2013). Research and symptom validity assessment in mild traumatic brain injury cases. In D. A. Carone & S. S. Bush (Eds.), Mild traumatic brain injury: Symptom validity assessment and malingering (pp. 119–144). Springer.
- Ovsiew, G. P., Resch, Z. J., Nayar, K., Williams, C. P., & Soble, J. R. (2020). Not so fast! Limitations of processing speed and working memory indices as embedded performance validity tests in a mixed neuropsychiatric sample. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 42(5), 473–484. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2020.1758635
- Pliskin, J. I., De-Dios-Stern, S., Resch, Z. J., Saladino, K. F., Ovsiew, G. P., Carter, D. A., & Soble, J. R. (2020). Comparing the psychometric properties of 8 embedded performance validity tests in the Rey auditory verbal learning test, Wechsler memory scale logical memory, and brief visuospatial memory test-revised recognition trials for detecting invalid neuropsychological test performance. Assessment. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191120929093
- Proto, D. A., Pastorek, N. J., Miller, B. I., Romesser, J. M., Sim, A. H., & Linck, J. F. (2014). The dangers of failing one or more performance validity tests in individuals claiming mild traumatic brain injury-related postconcussive symptoms. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 29(7), 614–624. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acu044
- Resch, Z. J., Pham, A. T., Abramson, D. A., White, D. J., DeDios-Stern, S., Ovsiew, G. P., Castillo, L., & Soble, J. R. (2020). Examining independent and combined accuracy of embedded performance validity tests in the California verbal learning test-II and brief visuospatial memory test-revised for detecting invalid performance. Applied Neuropsychology: Adult. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/23279095.2020.1742718
- Rogers, R. (2008). Clinical assessment of malingering and deception (3rd ed.). The Guilford Press.
- Schroeder, R. W., Martin, P. K., Heinrichs, R. J., & Baade, L. E. (2019). Research methods in performance validity testing studies: Criterion grouping approach impacts study outcomes. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 33(3), 466–477. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2018.1484517
- Schroeder, R. W., Martin, P. K., & Odland, A. P. (2016). Expert beliefs and practices regarding neuropsychological validity testing. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 30(4), 515–535. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2016.1177118
- Schroeder, R. W., Twumasi-Ankrah, P., Baade, L. E., & Marshall, P. S. (2012). Reliable digit span: A systematic review and cross-validation study. Assessment, 19(1), 21–30. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191111428764
- Sherman, E. M. S., Slick, D. J., & Iverson, G. L. (2020). Multidimensional malingering criteria for neuropsychological assessment: A 20-year update of the malingered neuropsychological dysfunction criteria. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 35(6), 735–764. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acaa019
- Slick, D. J., & Sherman, E. M. S. (2013). Differential diagnosis of malingering. In D. A. Carone & S. S. Bush (Eds.), Mild traumatic brain injury: Symptom validity assessment and malingering (p. 57–72). Springer Publishing Company.
- Slick, D. J., Sherman, E. M. S., & Iverson, G. L. (1999). Diagnostic criteria for malingered neurocognitive dysfunction: Proposed standards for clinical practice and research. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 13(4), 545–561. https://doi.org/10.1076/1385-4046(199911)13:04;1-Y;FT545
- Soble, J. R., Alverson, W. A., Phillips, J. I., Critchfield, E. A., Fullen, C., O’Rourke, J. J. F., Messerly, J., Highsmith, J. M., Bailey, K. C., Webber, T. A., & Marceaux, J. M. (2020a). Strength in numbers or quality over quantity? Examining the importance of criterion measure selection to define validity groups in performance validity test (PVT) research. Psychological Injury and Law, 13(1), 44–56. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12207-019-09370-w
- Soble, J. R., Rhoads, T., Carter, D. A., Bernstein, M. T., Ovsiew, G. P., & Resch, Z. J. (2020b). Out of sight, out of mind: The impact of material-specific memory impairment on Rey 15-item test performance. Psychological Assessment, 32(11), 1087–1093. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/pas0000854
- Soble, J. R., Sharp, D. W., Carter, D. A., Jennette, K. J., Resch, Z. J., Ovsiew, G. P., & Critchfield, E. A. (2021). Cross-validation of a forced-choice validity indicator to enhance the clinical utility of the Rey auditory verbal learning test. Psychological Assessment, 33(6), 568–573. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/pas0001018
- Sweet, J. J., Heilbronner, R. L., Morgan, J. E., Larrabee, G. J., Rohling, M. L., Boone, K. B., … Conference Participants. (2021). American Academy of Clinical Neuropsychology (AACN) 2021 consensus statement on validity assessment: Update of the 2009 AACN consensus conference statement on neuropsychological assessment of effort, response bias, and malingering. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 1–54. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2021.1896036
- Victor, T. L., Boone, K. B., Serpa, J. G., Buehler, J., & Ziegler, E. A. (2009). Interpreting the meaning of multiple symptom validity test failure. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 23(2), 297–313. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854040802232682
- Webber, T. A., Critchfield, E. A., & Soble, J. R. (2020). Convergent, discriminant, and concurrent validity of nonmemory-based performance validity tests. Assessment, 27(7), 1399–1415. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1073191118804874
- White, D. J., Korinek, D., Bernstein, M. T., Ovsiew, G. P., Resch, Z. J., & Soble, J. R. (2020). Cross-validation of non-memory-based embedded performance validity tests for detecting invalid performance among patients with and without neurocognitive impairment. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 42(5), 459–472. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2020
- Zuccato, B. G., Tyson, B. T., & Erdodi, L. A. (2018). Early bird fails the PVT? The effects of timing artifacts on performance validity tests. Psychological Assessment, 30(11), 1491–1498. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000596