The impact of race and other demographic factors on the false positive rates of five embedded Performance Validity Tests (PVTs) in a Veteran sample

References

• Axelrod, B. N., & Schutte, C. (2010). Analysis of the dementia profile on the medical symptom validity test. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 24(5), 873–881. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854040903527295
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bailey, K. C., Soble, J. R., Bain, K. M., & Fullen, C. (2018). Embedded performance validity tests in the hopkins verbal learning test-revised and the brief visuospatial memory test-revised: A replication study. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 33(7), 895–900. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acx111
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bar-On Kalfon, T., Gal, G., Shorer, R., & Ablin, J. N. (2016). Cognitive functioning in fibromyalgia: The central role of effort. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 87, 30–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2016.06.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benedict, R. H. B. (1997). Brief visuospatial memory test-revised. Psychological Assessment Resources.
   Google Scholar
• Boone, K. B. (2021). Assessment of feigned cognitive impairment: A neuropsychological perspective (2nd ed.). Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Bortnik, K. E., & Dean, A. C. (2021). Performance validity testing in patients with dementia. In K. B. Boone (Ed.), Assessment of feigned cognitive impairment: A neuropsychological perspective (2nd ed., pp. 481–503). Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Braun, S. E., Fountain-Zaragoza, S., Halliday, C. A., & Horner, M. D. (2021). Demographic differences in performance validity test failure. Applied Neuropsychology: Adult, 30(5), 483–491. https://doi.org/10.1080/23279095.2021.1958814
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Byrd, D. A., Sanchez, D., & Manly, J. J. (2005). Neuropsychological test performance among Caribbean-born and U.S.-born African American elderly: The role of age, education and reading level. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 27(8), 1056–1069. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803390490919353
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen, C. D., Rhoads, T., Keezer, R. D., Jennette, K. J., Williams, C. P., Hansen, N. D., Ovsiew, G. P., Resch, Z. J., & Soble, J. R. (2022). All of the accuracy in half of the time: Assessing abbreviated versions of the Test of Memory Malingering in the context of verbal and visual memory impairment. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 36(7), 1933–1949. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2021.1908596
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Curtis, K. L., Greve, K. W., & Bianchini, K. J. (2009). The Wechsler Adult Intelligence scale-III and malingering in traumatic brain injury: Classification accuracy in known groups. Assessment, 16(4), 401–414. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191109338161
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Delis, D. C., Kramer, J. H., Kaplan, E., & Ober, B. A. (2000). California verbal learning test (2nd ed.). Psychological Corporation.
   Google Scholar
• Denning, J. H. (2012). The efficiency and accuracy of the Test of Memory Malingering trial 1, errors on the first 10 items of the test of memory malingering, and five embedded measures in predicting invalid test performance. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 27(4), 417–432. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acs044
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Denning, J. H. (2021). When 10 is enough: Errors on the first 10 items of the test of memory malingering (TOMMe10) and administration time predict freestanding performance validity tests (PVTs) and underperformance on memory measures. Applied Neuropsychology: Adult, 28(1), 35–47. https://doi.org/10.1080/23279095.2019.1588122
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Denning, J. H. (2023). The TOMM1 discrepancy index (TDI): A new performance validity test (PVT) that differentiates between invalid cognitive testing and those diagnosed with dementia. Applied Neuropsychology: Adult, 30(1), 83–90. https://doi.org/10.1080/23279095.2021.1910951
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Donders, J., Lefebre, N., & Goldsworthy, R. (2021). Patterns of performance and symptom validity test findings after mild traumatic brain injury. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 36(3), 394–402. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acz057
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Erdodi, L. A., Klyce, D., Mills, A., & Dukarm, P. (2021). Five shades of gray: Conceptual and methodological issues around multivariate models of performance validity. NeuroRehabilitation, 49(2), 179–213. https://doi.org/10.3233/NRE-218020
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Etherton, J. L., Bianchini, K. J., Heinly, M. T., & Greve, K. W. (2006). Pain, malingering, and performance on the WAIS-III processing speed index. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 28(7), 1218–1237. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803390500346595
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gasquoine, P. G. (2022). Performance-based alternatives to race-norms in neuropsychological assessment. Cortex, 148, 231–238. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2021.12.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glymour, M. M., & Manly, J. J. (2008). Lifecourse social conditions and racial and ethnic patterns of cognitive aging. Neuropsychology Review, 18(3), 223–254. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11065-008-9064-z
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grabyan, J. M., Collins, R. L., Alverson, W. A., & Chen, D. K. (2018). Performance on the test of memory malingering is predicted by the number of errors on its first 10 items on an inpatient epilepsy monitoring unit. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 32(3), 468–478. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2017.1368715
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Green, P. (2004). Manual for green’s medical symptom validity test (MSVT). Green’s Publishing Inc.
   Google Scholar
• Greve, K. W., Springer, S., Bianchini, K. J., Black, F. W., Heinly, M. T., Love, J. M., Swift, D. A., & Ciota, M. A. (2007). Malingering in toxic exposure: Classification accuracy of reliable digit span and WAIS-III Digit Span scaled scores. Assessment, 14(1), 12–21. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191106295095
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grills, C. E., & Armistead Jehle, P. (2016). Performance validity test and neuropsychological assessment battery screening module performances in an active-duty sample with a history of concussion. Applied Neuropsychology: Adult, 23(4), 295–301. https://doi.org/10.1080/23279095.2015.1079713
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heaton, R. K., Miller, S. W., Taylor, M. J., & Iverson, I. (2004). Revised comprehensive norms for an expanded halstead-reitan battery: Demographically-adjusted norms for African American and caucasian adults. Psychological Assessment Resources.
   Google Scholar
• Hood, E. D., Boone, K. B., Miora, D. S., Cottingham, M. E., Victor, T. L., Zeigler, E. A., Zeller, M. A., & Wright, M. J. (2022). Are there differences in performance validity test scores between African American and White American neuropsychology clinic patients? Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 44(1), 31–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2022.2069230
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Horner, M. D., Denning, J. H., & Cool, D. L. (2023). Self-reported disability-seeking predicts PVT failure in veterans undergoing clinical neuropsychological evaluation. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 37(2), 387–401. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2022.2056923
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hromas, G., Rolin, S., & Davis, J. J. (2022). Racial differences in positive findings on embedded performance validity tests. Applied Neuropsychology: Adult Advance online publication, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1080/23279095.2022.2146504
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iverson, G. L., Lange, R. T., Green, P., & Franzen, M. D. (2002). Detecting exaggeration and malingering with the trail making test. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 16(3), 398–406. https://doi.org/10.1076/clin.16.3.398.13861
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jasinski, L. J., Berry, D. T., Shandera, A. L., & Clark, J. A. (2011). Use of the Wechsler Adult intelligence scale digit span subtest for malingering detection: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 33(3), 300–314. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2010.516743
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jennette, K. J., Rhoads, T., Resch, Z. J., Cerny, B. M., Leib, S. I., Sharp, D. W., Ovsiew, G. P., & Soble, J. R. (2022). Multivariable analysis of the relative utility and additive value of eight embedded performance validity tests for classifying invalid neuropsychological test performance. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 44(7), 451–460. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2022.2128067
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keary, T. A., Frazier, T. W., Belzile, C. J., Chapin, J. S., Naugle, R. I., Najm, I. M., & Busch, R. M. (2013). Working memory and intelligence are associated with victoria symptom validity test hard item performance in patients with intractable epilepsy. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 19(3), 314–323. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617712001397
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kraemer, L. D., Soble, J. R., Phillips, J. I., Webber, T. A., Fullen, C. T., Highsmith, J. M., Alex, A. W., & Critchfield, E. A.(2020). Minimizing evaluation time while maintaining accuracy: Cross-validation of the test of memory malingering (TOMM) trial 1 and first 10-item errors as briefer performance validity tests. Psychological Assessment, 32(5), 442–450. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000802
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LaDuke, C., Barr, W., Brodale, D. L., & Rabin, L. A. (2018). Toward generally accepted forensic assessment praactices among clinical neuropsychologists: A survey of professional practice and common test use. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 32(1), 145–164. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2017.1346711
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Locke, D. E., Smigielski, J. S., Powell, M. R., & Stevens, S. R. (2008). Effort issues in post-acute outpatient acquired brain injury rehabilitation seekers. NeuroRehabilitation, 23(3), 273–281. https://doi.org/10.3233/NRE-2008-23310
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manly, J. J., Byrd, D. A., Touradji, P., & Stern, Y. (2004). Acculturation, reading level, and neuropsychological test performance among African American elders. Applied Neuropsychology, 11(1), 37–46. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15324826an1101_5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin, P. K., Schroeder, R. W., & Odland, A. P. (2015). Neuropsychologists’ validity testing beliefs and practices: A survey of north american professionals. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 29(6), 741–776. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2015.1087597
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin, P. K., Schroeder, R. W., Olsen, D. H., Maloy, H., Boettcher, A., Ernst, N., & Okut, H. (2020). A systematic review and meta-analysis of the Test of Memory Malingering in adults: Two decades of deception detection. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 34(1), 88–119. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2019.1637027
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGuire, C., Crawford, S., & Evans, J. J. (2019). Effort testing in dementia assessment: A systematic review. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 34(1), 114–131. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acy012
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nauta, I. M., Bertens, D., van Dam, M., Huiskamp, M., Driessen, S., Geurts, J., Uitdehaag, B., Fasotti, L., Hulst, H. E., de Jong, B. A., & Klein, M. (2022). Performance validity in outpatients with multiple sclerosis and cognitive complaints. Multiple Sclerosis Journal, 28(4), 642–653. https://doi.org/10.1177/13524585211025780
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Norman, M. A., Moore, D. J., Taylor, M., Franklin, D., Jr., Cysique, L., Ake, C., Lazarretto, D., Vaida, F., Heaton, R. K., & Group, H. (2011). Demographically corrected norms for African Americans and Caucasians on the hopkins verbal learning test-revised, brief visuospatial memory test-revised, stroop color and Word test, and Wisconsin card sorting test 64-card version. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 33(7), 793–804. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2011.559157
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olsen, D. H., Schroeder, R. W., Heinrichs, R. J., & Martin, P. K. (2019). Examination of optimal embedded PVTs within the BVMT-R in an outpatient clinical sample. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 33(4), 732–742. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2018.1501096
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ovsiew, G. P., Resch, Z. J., Nayar, K., Williams, C. P., & Soble, J. R. (2020). Not so fast! Limitations of processing speed and working memory indices as embedded performance validity tests in a mixed neuropsychiatric sample. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 42(5), 473–484. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2020.1758635
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pliskin, J. I., DeDios Stern, S., Resch, Z. J., Saladino, K. F., Ovsiew, G. P., Carter, D. A., & Soble, J. R. (2021). Comparing the psychometric properties of eight embedded performance validity tests in the Rey Yuditory Verbal Learning Test, Wechsler Memory Scale Logical Memory, and Brief Visuospatial memory test-Revised Recognition Trials for detecting invalid neuropsychological test performance. Assessment, 28(8), 1871–1881. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191120929093
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Resch, Z. J., Cerny, B. M., Ovsiew, G. P., Jennette, K. J., Bing-Canar, H., Rhoads, T., & Soble, J. R. (2023). A direct comparison of 10 WAIS-IV digit span embedded validity indi cators among a mixed neuropsychiatric sample with varying degrees of cognitive impairment. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 38(4), 619–632. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acac082
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Resch, Z. J., Rhoads, T., Ovsiew, G. P., & Soble, J. R. (2022). A known-groups validation of the medical symptom validity test and analysis of the genuine memory impairment profile. Assessment, 29(3), 455–466. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191120983919
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salinsky, M., Binder, L., Storzbach, D., Parko, K., Rutecki, P., Goy, E., & Tadrous-Furnanz, S. (2020). Validity testing in veterans with epileptic seizures and psychogenic nonepileptic seizures. Epilepsy and Behavior, 111, 107246. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2020.107246
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schroeder, R. W., Martin, P. K., & Odland, A. P. (2016). Expert beliefs and practices regarding neuropsychological validity testing. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 30(4), 515–535. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2016.1177118
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwartz, E. S., Erdodi, L., Rodriguez, N., Ghosh, J. J., Curtain, J. R., Flashman, L. A., & Roth, R. M. (2016). CVLT-II forced choice recognition trial as an embedded validity indicator: A systematic review of the evidence. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 22(8), 851–858. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617716000746
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sherman, E. M. S., Slick, D. J., & Iverson, G. L. (2020). Multidimensional malingering criteria for neuropsychological assessment: A 20-year update of the malingered neuropsychological dysfunction criteria. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 35(6), 735–764. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acaa019
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shewach, O. R., Sackett, P. R., & Quint, S.(2019). Stereotype threat effects in settings with features likely versus unlikely in operational test settings: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 104(12), 1514–1534. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000420
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shura, R. D., Denning, J. H., Armistead Jehle, P., & Axelrod, B. A.(2022). Validity assessment within VA and active duty. In R. W. Schoeder, & P. K. Martin (Eds.), Validity assessment in clinical neuropsychological practice: Evaluating and managing non-credible performance (pp. 235–253). Guilford.
   Google Scholar
• Shura, R. D., Martindale, S. L., Taber, K. H., Higgins, A. M., & Rowland, J. A. (2020). Digit Span embedded validity indicators in neurologically-intact veterans. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 34(5), 1025–1037. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2019.1635209
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soble, J. R., Cerny, B. M., Rhoads, T., DeBoer, A. B., Sharp, D. W., Ovsiew, G. P., Phillips, M. S., Pesanti, S. D., Jennette, K. J., & Resch, Z. J. (2023). Do demographic factors influence detection of invalid neuropsychological test performance using common performance validity tests? A multisite investigation. Neuropsychology, 37(2), 218–232. https://doi.org/10.1037/neu0000880
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spencer, R. J., Axelrod, B. N., Drag, L. L., Waldron-Perrine, B., Pangilinan, P. H., & Bieliauskas, L. A. (2013). WAIS-IV reliable digit span is no more accurate than age corrected scaled score as an indicator of invalid performance in a veteran sample undergoing evaluation for mTBI. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 27(8), 1362–1372. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2013.845248
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suchy, Y., Chelune, G., Franchow, E. I., & Thorgusen, S. R. (2012). Confronting patients about insufficient effort: The impact on subsequent symptom validity and memory performance. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 26(8), 1296–1311. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2012.722230
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sweet, J. J., Heilbronner, R. L., Morgan, J. E., Larrabee, G. J., Rohling, M. L., Boone, K. B., Kirkwood, M. W., Schroeder, R. W., Suhr, J. A., & Conference, P. (2021). American Academy of Clinical Neuropsychology (AACN) 2021 consensus statement on validity assessment: Update of the 2009 AACN consensus conference statement on neuropsychological assessment of effort, response bias, and malingering. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 35(6), 1053–1106. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2021.1896036
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tan, Y. W., Burgess, G. H., & Green, R. J. (2021). The effects of acculturation on neuropsychological test performance: A systematic literature review. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 35(3), 541–571. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2020.1714740
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thames, A. D., Hinkin, C. H., Byrd, D. A., Bilder, R. M., Duff, K. J., Mindt, M. R., Arentoft, A., & Streiff, V. (2013). Effects of stereotype threat, perceived discrimination, and Examiner race on neuropsychological performance: Simple as black and White?. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society: JINS, 19(5), 583–593. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617713000076
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tombaugh, T. N. (1996). Test of memory malingering. Multi-Health Systems.
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Census Bureau. (2021). Racial and ethnic diversity in the united states: 2010 and 2020 census. https://www.census.gov/library/visualizations/interactive/racial-and-ethnic-diversity-in-the-united-states-2010-and-2020-census.html
   Google Scholar
• VanLandingham, H., Ellison, R. L., Laique, A., Cladek, A., Khan, H., Gonzalez, C., & Dunn, M. R. (2022). A scoping review of stereotype threat for BIPOC: Cognitive effects and intervention strategies for the field of neuropsychology. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 36(2), 503–522. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2021.1947388
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walton, G. M., & Spencer, S. J. (2009). Latent Ability. Psychological Science, 20(9), 1132–1139. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02417.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Webber, T. A., & Soble, J. R. (2018). Utility of various WAIS-IV digit span indices for identifying noncredible performance validity among cognitively impaired and unimpaired examinees. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 32(4), 657–670. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2017.1415374
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wechsler, D. (1997). Wechsler adult intelligence scale (3rd ed.). The Psychological Corporation.
   Google Scholar
• Wechsler, D. (2008). Wechsler adult intelligence scale (4th ed.). Pearson Clinical Assessment.
   Google Scholar
• Whaley, A. L. (2021). Stereotype threat and neuropsychological test performance in the U.S. African American Population. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 36(7), 1361–1366. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acab020
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whitney, K. A., Davis, J. J., Shepard, P. H., Bertram, D. M., & Adams, K. M. (2009). Digit span age scaled score in middle-aged military veterans: Is it more closely associated with TOMM failure than reliable digit span? Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 24(3), 263–272. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acp034
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wong, T. M., Strickland, T. L., Fletcher-Jansen, E., Ardila, A., & Reynolds, C. R. (2000). Theoretical and practical issues in the neuropsychological assessment and treatment of culturally dissimilar patients. In E. Fletcher-Janzen, T. L. Strickland, & C. R. Reynolds (Eds.), Critical issues in neuropsychology. Handbook of cross-cultural neuropsychology (pp. 3–18). Kluwer Academic Publishers.
   Google Scholar
• Young, J. C., Roper, B. L., & Arentsen, T. J. (2016). Validity testing and neuropsychology practice in the VA healthcare system: Results from recent practitioner survey. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 30(4), 497–514. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2016.1159730
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zuccato, B. G., Tyson, B. T., & Erdodi, L. A. (2018). Early bird fails the PVT? The effects of timing artifacts on performance validity tests. Psychological Assessment, 30(11), 1491–1498. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000596
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar