Socioeconomic and gender group differences in early literacy skills: a multiple-group confirmatory factor analysis approach

References

• Adams, M. J. (1990). Beginning to read: Thinking and learning about print. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
   Google Scholar
• Al Otaiba, S., Connor, C. M., Folsom, J. S., Greulich, L., Meadows, J., & Li, Z. (2011). Assessment data-informed guidance to individualize kindergarten reading instruction: Findings from a cluster-randomized control field trial. The Elementary School Journal, 111, 535–560. doi: 10.1086/659031
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Al Otaiba, S., Puranik, C. S., Rouby, D. A., Greulich, L., Sidler, J. F., & Lee, J. (2010). Predicting kindergarteners’ end-of-year spelling ability based on their reading, alphabetic, vocabulary, and phonological awareness skills, as well as prior literacy experiences. Learning Disability Quarterly, 33, 171–183.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arnold, D. H., & Doctoroff, G. L. (2003). The early education of socioeconomically disadvantaged children. Annual Review of Psychology, 54, 517–545. doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.54.111301.145442
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benjamini, Y., & Hochberg, Y. (1995). Controlling the false discovery rate: A practical and powerful approach to multiple testing. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society: Series B (Statistical Methodology), 57, 289–300.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blachman, B. A. (2000). Phonological awareness. In M. L. Kamil, P. B. Mosenthal, P. D. Pearson, & R. Barr (Eds.), Handbook of reading research (pp. 483–502). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
   Google Scholar
• Bowey, J. A. (1995). Socioeconomic status differences in preschool phonological sensitivity and first-grade reading achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 87, 476–487. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.87.3.476
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brooks-Gunn, J., & Duncan, G. J. (1997). The effects of poverty on children. The Future of Children: Children and Poverty, 7, 55–71. doi: 10.2307/1602387
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown, T. A. (2006). Confirmatory factor analysis for applied research. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Browne, M. W., & Cudeck, R. (1993). Alternative ways of assessing model fit. In K. A. Bollen & J. S. Long (Eds.), Testing structural equation models (pp. 136–162). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Byrne, B., & Fielding-Barnsley, R. (1993). Recognition of phoneme invariance by beginning readers: Confounding effects of global similarity. Reading and Writing, 5, 315–324. doi: 10.1007/BF01027394
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Byrne, B. M., & Watkins, D. (2003). The issue of measurement invariance revisited. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 34, 155–175. doi: 10.1177/0022022102250225
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Catts, H. W., Petscher, Y., Schatschneider, C., Bridges, M. S., & Mendoza, K. (2009). Floor effects associated with universal screening and their impact on the early identification of reading disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 42, 163–176. doi: 10.1177/0022219408326219
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chatterji, M. (2006). Reading achievement gaps, correlates, and moderators of early reading achievement: Evidence from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study (ECLS) kindergarten to first grade sample. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98, 489–507. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.98.3.489
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheung, G. W., & Rensvold, R. B. (2002). Evaluating goodness-of-fit indexes for testing measurement invariance. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 2, 233–255. doi: 10.1207/S15328007SEM0902_5
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Curran, P. J., West, S. G., & Finch, J. F. (1996). The robustness of test statistics to non-normality and specification errors in confirmatory factor analysis. Psychological Methods, 1, 16–29. doi: 10.1037/1082-989X.1.1.16
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ehri, L. C., & Wilce, L. S. (1987). Does learning to spell help beginners learn to read words? Reading Research Quarterly, 22, 47–65. doi: 10.2307/747720
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Entwisle, D. R., Alexander, K. L., & Olson, L. S. (2007). Early schooling: The handicap of being poor and male. Sociology of Education, 80, 114–138. doi: 10.1177/003804070708000202
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Finney, S. J., & DiStefano, C (2006). Non-normal and categorical data in structural equation modeling. In G. R. Hancock & R. O. Mueller (Eds.), Structural equation modeling: A second course (pp. 269–314). Greenwich, CT: Information Age.
   Google Scholar
• Fletcher, J. M., Lyon, G. R., Barnes, M., Stuebing, K. K., Francis, D. J., Olson, R. K., … Shaywitz, B. A. (2002). Classification of learning disabilities: An evidence-based evaluation. In R. Bradley, L. Danielson, & D. P. Hallahan (Eds.), Identification of learning disabilities: Research to policy (pp. 185–250). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
   Google Scholar
• Francis, D. J., Shaywitz, S. E., Stuebing, K. K., Shaywitz, B. A., & Fletcher, J. M. (1996). Developmental lag versus deficit models of reading disability: A longitudinal, individual growth curves analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88, 3–17. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.88.1.3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fuchs, D., Fuchs, L. S., Thompson, A., Al Otaiba, S., Yen, L., Yang, N. J., … O'Connor, R. E. (2001). Is reading important in reading-readiness programs? A randomized controlled field trial with teachers as program implementers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93, 251–267.
   Google Scholar
• Gamoran, A. (Ed.). (2007). Standards-based reform and the poverty gap: Lessons for “No Child Left Behind” (pp. 3–16). Washington, DC: Brookings.
   Google Scholar
• Good, R. H., & Kaminski, R. A. (2002). Dynamic indicators of basic early literacy skills (6th ed.). Eugene, OR: Institute for Development of Educational Achievement.
   Google Scholar
• Hancock, G. R. (2001). Effect size, power, and sample size determination for structured means modeling and MIMIC approaches to between-groups hypothesis testing of means on a single latent construct. Psychometrika, 66, 373–388. doi: 10.1007/BF02294440
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harper, S. N., & Pelletier, J. P. (2008). Gender and language issues in assessing early literacy: Group differences in children's performance on the test of early reading ability. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 26, 185–194. doi: 10.1177/0734282908314105
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hirschfeld, G., & von Brachel, R. (2014). Multiple-group confirmation factor analysis in R-A tutorial in measurement invariance with continuous and ordinal indicators. Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation, 19(7). Retrieved from http://pareonline.net/getvn.asp?v=19&n=7
   Google Scholar
• Hu, L.-T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indices in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6, 1–55. doi: 10.1080/10705519909540118
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hulme, C., & Snowling, M. J. (2013). The interface between spoken and written language: Developmental disorders. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 369: 20120395. Retrieved from http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/369/1634/20120395
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaufman, A. S., & Kaufman, N. L. (2004). Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test manual, 2nd edition. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Kline, R. B. (2011). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Lee, J., Grigg, W., & Donahue, P. (2007). The nation's report card: Reading 2007 (NCES 2007–496). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/pdf/main2007/2007496.pdf
   Google Scholar
• MacDonald, G. W., & Cornwall, A. (1995). The relationship between phonological awareness and reading and spelling achievement eleven years later. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 28, 523–527. doi: 10.1177/002221949502800807
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matthews, J. S., Ponitz, C. C., & Morrison, F. J. (2009). Early gender differences in self-regulation and academic achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101, 689–704. doi: 10.1037/a0014240
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCoach, D. B., O'Connell, A. A., Reis, S. M., & Levitt, H. A. (2006). Growing readers: A hierarchical linear model of children's reading growth during the first 2 years of school. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98, 14–28. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.98.1.14
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mulligan, G. M., Hastedt, S., & McCarroll, J. C. (2012). First-time kindergartners in 2010–11: First findings from the kindergarten rounds of the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 2010-11 (ECLS-K:2011) (NCES 2012-049). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics. Retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch
   Google Scholar
• Muthén, B., & Muthén, L. (1998-2010). Mplus (6.1) [Statistical software]. Los Angeles, CA: Authors.
   Google Scholar
• National Early Literacy Panel. (2008). Developing early literacy: Report of the National Early Literacy Panel. Washington, DC: National Institute for Literacy.
   Google Scholar
• National Reading Panel. (2000). Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction. Bethesda, MD: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development.
   Google Scholar
• O'Connor, R. E., & Jenkins, J. R. (1999). Prediction of reading disabilities in kindergarten and first grade. Scientific Studies of Reading, 3, 159–197. doi: 10.1207/s1532799xssr0302_4
   Google Scholar
• Raz, I. S., & Bryant, P. (1990). Social background, phonological awareness and children's reading. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 8, 209–225. doi: 10.1111/j.2044-835X.1990.tb00837.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ready, D. D., LoGerfo, L. F., Burkam, D. T., & Lee, V. E. (2005). Explaining girls’ advantage in kindergarten literacy learning: Do classroom behaviors make a difference? The Elementary School Journal, 106, 21–38. doi: 10.1086/496905
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ritchey, K. D. (2008). The building blocks of writing: Learning to write letters and spell words. Reading and Writing, 21, 27–47. doi: 10.1007/s11145-007-9063-0
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ritchey, K. D., & Speece, D. L. (2006). From letter names to word reading: The nascent role of sublexical fluency. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 31, 301–327. doi: 10.1016/j.cedpsych.2005.10.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Santoro, L. E., Coyne, M. D., & Simmons, D. C. (2006). The reading-spelling connection: Developing and evaluating a beginning spelling intervention for children at risk of reading disability. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 21, 122–133. doi: 10.1111/j.1540-5826.2006.00212.x
   Google Scholar
• Schatschneider, C., Fletcher, J. M., Francis, D. J., Carlson, C., & Foorman, B. R. (2004). Kindergarten prediction of reading skills: A longitudinal comparative analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96, 265–282. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.96.2.265
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shinn, M. M., & Shinn, M. R. (2004). AIMSweb. Eden Prairie, MN: Edformation.
   Google Scholar
• Snow, C. E. (2006). What counts as early literacy in early childhood? In K. McCartney & D. Phillips (Eds.), Blackwell handbook of early childhood development (pp. 274–294). Malden, MA: Blackwell.
   Google Scholar
• Speece, D. L., Mills, C., Ritchey, K. D., & Hillman, E. (2003). Initial evidence that letter fluency tasks are valid indicators of early reading skill. Journal of Special Education, 36, 223–233. doi: 10.1177/002246690303600403
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tangel, D. M., & Blachman, B. A. (1992). Effect of phoneme awareness instruction on kindergarten children's invented spelling. Journal of Reading Behavior, 24, 233–261.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thompson, M. S., & Green, S. B. (2006). Evaluating between-group differences in latent variable means. In G. R. Hancock & R. O. Mueller (Eds.), Structural equation modeling: A second course (pp. 119–170). Greenwich, CT: Information Age.
   Google Scholar
• Townsend, M., & Konold, T. R. (2010). Measuring early literacy skills: A latent variable investigation of the phonological awareness literacy screening for preschool. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 28, 115–128. doi: 10.1177/0734282909336277
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tucker, L. R., & Lewis, C. (1973). A reliability coefficient for maximum likelihood factor analysis. Psychometrika, 38, 1–10. doi: 10.1007/BF02291170
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vellutino, F. R., Fletcher, J. M., Snowling, M. J., & Scanlon, D. M. (2004). Specific reading disability (dyslexia): What have we learned in the past four decades? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45, 2–40. doi: 10.1046/j.0021-9630.2003.00305.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wagner, R. K., Torgesen, J. K., & Rashotte, C. A. (1999). Comprehensive test of phonological processing. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.
   Google Scholar
• Wagner, R. K., Torgesen, J. K., Rashotte, C. A., Hecht, S. A., Barker, T. A., Burgess, S. R., … Garon, T. (1997). Changing relations between phonological processing abilities and word-level reading as children develop from beginning to skilled readers: A 5-year longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology, 33, 468–479. doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.33.3.468
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• West, J., Denton, K., & Germino-Hausken, E. (2000). America's kindergartners: Findings from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, kindergarten class of 1998-99, fall 1998. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics, U. S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement.
   Google Scholar