Multimodal coding and strategic approach in young and older adults’ visual working memory performance

References

• Allen, R. J., Havelka, J., Falcon, T., Evans, S., & Darling, S. (2015). Modality specificity and integration in working memory: Insights from visuospatial bootstrapping. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 41, 820–830.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ardiale, E., & Lemaire, P. (2012). Within-item strategy switching: An age comparative study in adults. Psychology and Aging, 27, 1138–1151.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ardiale, E., & Lemaire, P. (2013). Effects of execution duration on within-item strategy switching in young and older adults. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 25, 464–472.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Atkinson, A. L., Baddeley, A. D., & Allen, R. J. (2018). Remember some or remember all? Ageing and strategy effects in visual working memory. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 17, 1561–1573. doi:10.1080/17470218.2017.1341537
   Google Scholar
• Baddeley, A. D. (2007). Working memory, thought and action. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Bailey, H., Dunlosky, J., & Hertzog, C. (2009). Does differential strategy use account for age-related deficits in working-memory performance?. Psychology and Aging, 24, 82–92.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bailey, H. R., Dunlosky, J., & Hertzog, C. (2014). Does strategy training reduce age-related deficits in working memory? Gerontology, 60, 346–356.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beigneux, K., Plaie, T., & Isingrini, M. (2007). Aging effects on visual and spatial components of working memory. International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 65, 301–314.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bopp, K. L., & Verhaeghen, P. (2005). Aging and verbal memory span: A meta-analysis. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, 60, 223–233.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bopp, K. L., & Verhaeghen, P. (2007). Age-related differences in control processes in verbal and visuospatial working memory: Storage, transformation, supervision, and coordination. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, 62, 239–246.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borst, G., Ganis, G., Thompson, W. L., & Kosslyn, S. M. (2012). Representations in mental imagery and working memory: Evidence from different types of visual masks. Memory & Cognition, 40, 204–217.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bouazzaoui, B., Isingrini, M., Fay, S., Angel, L., Vanneste, S., Clarys, D., & Taconnat, L. (2010). Aging and self-reported internal and external memory strategy uses: The role of executive functioning. Acta Psychologica, 135, 59–66.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bower, G. H. (1970). Analysis of a mnemonic device. American Scientist, 58, 496–510.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bower, G. H., Karlin, M. B., & Dueck, A. (1975). Comprehension and memory for pictures. Memory & Cognition, 3, 216–220.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brandimonte, M. A., Hitch, G. J., & Bishop, D. V. (1992a). Influence of short-term memory codes on visual image processing: Evidence from image transformation tasks. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 18, 157–165.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brandimonte, M. A., Hitch, G. J., & Bishop, D. V. M. (1992b). Verbal recoding of visual stimuli impairs mental image transformations. Memory & Cognition, 20, 449–455.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Braver, T. S., & West, R. L. (2008). Working memory, executive control, and aging. In F. I. M. Craik & T. A. Salthouse (Eds.), The handbook of aging and cognition (3rd ed., pp. 311–372). New York: Psychology Press.
   Google Scholar
• Brown, L. A. (2016). Spatial-sequential working memory in younger and older adults: Age predicts backward recall performance within both age groups. Frontiers in Psychology, 7:1514.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown, L. A., Brockmole, J. R., Gow, A. J., & Deary, I. J. (2012). Processing speed and visuospatial executive function predict visual working memory ability in older adults. Experimental Aging Research, 38, 1–19.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown, L. A., Forbes, D., & McConnell, J. (2006). Limiting the use of verbal coding in the Visual Patterns Test. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 59, 1169–1176.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown, L. A., & Wesley, R. (2013). Visual working memory is enhanced by mixed strategy use and semantic coding. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 25, 328–338.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bruyer, R., & Scailquin, J. C. (1999). Assessment of visuo-spatial short-term memory and effect of aging. European Review of Applied Psychology, 49, 175–181.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bucur, B., Madden, D. J., Spaniol, J., Provenzale, J. M., Cabeza, R., White, L. E., & Huettel, S. A. (2008). Age-related slowing of memory retrieval: Contributions of perceptual speed and cerebral white matter integrity. Neurobiology of Aging, 29, 1070–1079.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burianová, H., Lee, Y., Grady, C. L., & Moscovitch, M. (2013). Age-related dedifferentiation and compensatory changes in the functional network underlying face processing. Neurobiology of Aging, 34, 2759–2767.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buschkuehl, M., Jaeggi, S. M., Hutchison, S., Perrig-Chiello, P., Däpp, C., Müller, M., & Perrig, W. J. (2008). Impact of working memory training on memory performance in old-old adults. Psychology and Aging, 23, 743–753.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cabeza, R., Anderson, N. D., Locantore, J. K., & McIntosh, A. R. (2002). Aging gracefully: Compensatory brain activity in high-performing older adults. Neuroimage, 17, 1394–1402.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campoy, G., Castellà, J., Provencio, V., Hitch, G. J., & Baddeley, A. D. (2015). Automatic semantic encoding in verbal short-term memory: Evidence from the concreteness effect. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 68, 759–778.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carp, J., Gmeindl, L., & Reuter-Lorenz, P. A. (2010). Age differences in the neural representation of working memory revealed by multi-voxel pattern analysis. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 4, 217.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carp, J., Park, J., Polk, T. A., & Park, D. C. (2011). Age differences in neural distinctiveness revealed by multi-voxel pattern analysis. Neuroimage, 56, 736–743.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cherry, K. E., Park, D. C., Frieske, D. A., & Smith, A. D. (1996). Verbal and pictorial elaborations enhance memory in younger and older adults. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 3, 15–29.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Darling, S., Della Sala, S., & Logie, R. H. (2009). Dissociation between appearance and location within visuo-spatial working memory. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 62, 417–425.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davis, S. W., Dennis, N. A., Daselaar, S. M., Fleck, M. S., & Cabeza, R. (2008). Qué PASA? The posterior–anterior shift in aging. Cerebral Cortex, 18, 1201–1209.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Ribaupierre, A., Lecerf, T., & Bailleux, C. (2000). Is a nonverbal working memory task necessarily nonverbally encoded? Current Psychology of Cognition, 19, 135–170.
   Google Scholar
• Dean, G. M., Dewhurst, S. A., Morris, P. E., & Whittaker, A. (2005). Selective interference with the use of visual images in the symbolic distance paradigm. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 31, 1043–1068.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dean, G. M., Dewhurst, S. A., & Whittaker, A. (2008). Dynamic visual noise interferes with storage in visual working memory. Experimental Psychology, 55, 283–289.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deary, I. J., Bastin, M. E., Pattie, A., Clayden, J. D., Whalley, L. J., Starr, J. M., & Wardlaw, J. M. (2006). White matter integrity and cognition in childhood and old age. Neurology, 66, 505–512.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deary, I. J., Johnson, W., & Starr, J. M. (2010). Are processing speed tasks biomarkers of cognitive aging? Psychology and Aging, 25, 219–228.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Della Sala, S., Gray, C., Baddeley, A., Allamano, N., & Wilson, L. (1999). Pattern span: A tool for unwelding visuo-spatial memory. Neuropsychologia, 37, 1189–1199.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Della Sala, S., Gray, C., Baddeley, A., & Wilson, L. (1997). Visual patterns test: A test of short-term visual recall. Bury St Edmunds, UK: Thames Valley Test Company.
   Google Scholar
• Delogu, F., Raffone, A., & Belardinelli, M. O. (2009). Semantic encoding in working memory: Is there a (multi)modality effect? Memory, 17, 655–663.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duverne, S., & Lemaire, P. (2004). Age-related differences in arithmetic problem-verification strategies. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, 59, P135–P142.
   Google Scholar
• Edwards, J. D., Xu, H., Clark, D. O., Guey, L. T., Ross, L. A., & Unverzagt, F. W. (2017). Speed of processing training results in lower risk of dementia. Alzheimer’s & Dementia: Translational Research & Clinical Interventions, 3, 603–611.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fera, F., Weickert, T. W., Goldberg, T. E., Tessitore, A., Hariri, A., Das, S., & Mattay, V. S. (2005). Neural mechanisms underlying probabilistic category learning in normal aging. Journal of Neuroscience, 25, 11340–11348.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fiore, F., Borella, E., Mammarella, I. C., & De Beni, R. (2012). Age differences in verbal and visuo-spatial working memory updating: Evidence from analysis of serial position curves. Memory, 20, 14–27.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Folstein, M. F., Folstein, S. E., & McHugh, P. R. (1975). “Mini-Mental State”: A practical method for grading the cognitive state of patients for the clinician. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 12, 189–198.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Geerligs, L., Maurits, N. M., Renken, R. J., & Lorist, M. M. (2014). Reduced specificity of functional connectivity in the aging brain during task performance. Human Brain Mapping, 35, 319–330.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grady, C. L. (1996). Age-related changes in cortical blood flow activation during perception and memory. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 777, 14–21.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grady, C. L., Maisog, J. M., Horwitz, B., Ungerleider, L. G., Mentis, M. J., Salerno, J. A., … Haxby, J. V. (1994). Age-related changes in cortical blood flow activation during visual processing of faces and location. Journal of Neuroscience, 14, 1450–1462.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guest, D., Howard, C., Brown, L. A., & Gleeson, H. (2015). Aging and the rate of visual information processing. Journal of Vision, 15: 10, 1–25.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hamilton, C. J., Brown, L. A., & Rossi-Arnaud, C. (2018). Older adults benefit from symmetry, but not semantic availability, in visual working memory. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 2373.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hastings, E. C., & West, R. L. (2009). The relative success of a self-help and a group-based memory training program for older adults. Psychology and Aging, 24, 586–594.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hedden, T., & Gabrieli, J. D. E. (2004). Insights into the ageing mind: A view from cognitive neuroscience. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 5, 87–96.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hinault, T., Lemaire, P., & Touron, D. (2017). Aging effects in sequential modulations of poorer-strategy effects during execution of memory strategies. Memory, 25, 176–186.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hodzik, S., & Lemaire, P. (2011). Inhibition and shifting capacities mediate adults’ age-related differences in strategy selection and repertoire. Acta Psychologica, 137, 335–344.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jenkins, L., Myerson, J., Joerding, J. A., & Hale, S. (2000). Converging evidence that visuospatial cognition is more age-sensitive than verbal cognition. Psychology and Aging, 15, 157–175.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson, W., Logie, R. H., & Brockmole, J. R. (2010). Working memory tasks differ in factor structure across age cohorts: Implications for dedifferentiation. Intelligence, 38, 513–528.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karbach, J., & Verhaeghen, P. (2014). Making working memory work: A meta-analysis of executive-control and working memory training in older adults. Psychological Science, 25, 2027–2037.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelly, M. E., Loughrey, D., Lawlor, B. A., Robertson, I. H., Walsh, C., & Brennan, S. (2014). The impact of cognitive training and mental stimulation on cognitive and everyday functioning of healthy older adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Ageing Research Reviews, 15, 28–43.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kliegl, R., Mayr, U., & Krampe, R. T. (1994). Time-accuracy functions for determining process and person differences: An application to cognitive aging. Cognitive Psychology, 26, 134–164.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ko, P. C., Duda, B., Hussey, E., Mason, E., Molitor, R. J., Woodman, G. F., & Ally, B. A. (2014). Understanding age-related reductions in visual working memory capacity: Examining the stages of change detection. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 76, 2015–2030.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuhlmann, B. G., & Touron, D. R. (2012). Mediator-based encoding strategies in source monitoring in young and older adults. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 38, 1352–1364.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Larsen, J. D., & Baddeley, A. (2003). Disruption of verbal STM by irrelevant speech, articulatory suppression, and manual tapping: Do they have a common source? The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 56, 1249–1268.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lemaire, P. (2010). Cognitive strategy variations during aging. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 19, 363–369.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lemaire, P. (2016). Cognitive aging: The role of strategies. New York, NY: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Lemaire, P., & Siegler, R. S. (1995). Four aspects of strategic change: Contributions to children’s learning of multiplication. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 124, 83–97.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leonards, U., Ibanez, V., & Giannakopoulos, P. (2002). The role of stimulus type in age-related changes of visual working memory. Experimental Brain Research, 146, 172–183.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li, S-C., Lindenberger, U., & Sikström, S. (2001). Aging cognition: From neuromodulation to representation. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 5, 479–486.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li, S-C., & Sikström, S. (2002). Integrative neurocomputational perspectives on cognitive aging, neuromodulation, and representation. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 26, 795–808.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Logie, R. H. (2011). The functional organization and capacity limits of working memory. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 20, 240–245.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Logie, R. H. (2012). Cognitive training: Strategies and the multicomponent cognitive system. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 1, 206–207.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Logie, R. H., Della Sala, S., Laiacona, M., Chalmers, P., & Wynn, V. (1996). Group aggregates and individual reliability: The case of verbal short-term memory. Memory & Cognition, 24, 305–321.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Logie, R. H., & Maylor, E. A. (2009). An internet study of prospective memory across adulthood. Psychology and Aging, 24, 767–774.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luck, S. J., & Vogel, E. K. (2013). Visual working memory capacity: From psychophysics and neurobiology to individual differences. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 17, 391–400.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ma, W. J., Husain, M., & Bays, P. M. (2014). Changing concepts of working memory. Nature Neuroscience, 17, 347–356.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mammarella, I. C., Giofrè, D., Caviola, S., Cornoldi, C., & Hamilton, C. (2014). Visuospatial working memory in children with autism: The effect of a semantic global organization. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 35, 1349–1356.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mayr, U., & Kliegl, R. (2000). Complex semantic processing in old age: Does it stay or does it go? Psychology and Aging, 15, 29–43.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McConnell, J., & Quinn, J. G. (2000). Interference in visual working memory. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 53A, 53–67.
   Google Scholar
• McConnell, J., & Quinn, J. G. (2004). Complexity factors in visuo‐spatial working memory. Memory, 12, 338–350.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murre, J. M. N., Janssen, S. M. J., Rouw, R., & Meeter, M. (2013). The rise and fall of immediate and delayed memory for verbal and visuospatial information from late childhood to late adulthood. Acta Psychologica, 142, 96–107.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Myerson, J., Hale, S., Rhee, S. H., & Jenkins, L. (1999). Selective interference with verbal and spatial working memory in young and older adults. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, 54, 161–164.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Naveh-Benjamin, M., Brav, T. K., & Levy, O. (2007). The associative memory deficit of older adults: The role of strategy utilization. Psychology and Aging, 22, 202–208.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Noack, H., Lövdén, M., & Lindenberger, U. (2012). Normal aging increases discriminal dispersion in visuospatial short-term memory. Psychology and Aging, 27, 627–637.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nyberg, L., Sandblom, J., Jones, S., Neely, A. S., Petersson, K. M., Ingvar, M., & Bäckman, L. (2003). Neural correlates of training-related memory improvement in adulthood and aging. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 100, 13728–13733.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Orme, E., Brown, L. A., & Riby, L. M. (2017). Retrieval and monitoring processes during visual working memory: An ERP study of the benefit of visual semantics. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 1080.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paivio, A. (1971). Imagery and verbal processes. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
   Google Scholar
• Paivio, A. (1991). Images in mind: The evolution of a theory. Hertfordshire: Harvester Wheatsheaf.
   Google Scholar
• Park, C., Lautenschlager, G., Hedden, T., Davidson, N. S., Smith, A. D., & Smith, P. K. (2002). Models of visuospatial and verbal memory across the adult life span. Psychology and Aging, 17, 299–320.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park, D. C., Polk, T. A., Park, R., Minear, M., Savage, A., & Smith, M. R. (2004). Aging reduces neural specialization in ventral visual cortex. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 101, 13091–13095.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park, D. C., & Reuter-Lorenz, P. (2009). The adaptive brain: Aging and neurocognitive scaffolding. Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 173–196.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park, J., Carp, J., Hebrank, A., Park, D. C., & Polk, T. A. (2010). Neural specificity predicts fluid processing ability in older adults. Journal of Neuroscience, 30, 9253–9259.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park, J., Carp, J., Kennedy, K. M., Rodrigue, K. M., Bischof, G. N., Huang, C-M., & Park, D. C. (2012). Neural broadening or neural attenuation? Investigating age-related dedifferentiation in the face network in a large lifespan sample. Journal of Neuroscience, 32, 2154–2158.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Payer, D., Marshuetz, C., Sutton, B., Hebrank, A., Welsh, R. C., & Park, D. C. (2006). Decreased neural specialization in old adults on a working memory task. Neuroreport, 17, 487–491.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pearson Education, Inc. (2009). Test of Premorbid Functioning – UK edition. London: Pearson Assessment.
   Google Scholar
• Peich, M., Husain, M., & Bays, P. M. (2013). Age-related decline of precision and binding in visual working memory. Psychology and Aging, 28, 729–743.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Postle, B. R., D’Esposito, M., & Corkin, S. (2005). Effects of verbal and nonverbal interference on spatial and object visual working memory. Memory & Cognition, 33, 203–212.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Postle, B. R., & Hamidi, M. (2007). Nonvisual codes and nonvisual brain areas support visual working memory. Cerebral Cortex, 17, 2151–2162.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Quinn, J. G., & McConnell, J. (1996a). Irrelevant pictures in visual working memory. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 49A, 200–215. doi:10.1080/713755613
   Google Scholar
• Quinn, J. G., & McConnell, J. (1996b). Indications of the functional distinction between the components of visual working memory. Psychologische Beitrage, 38, 355–367.
   Google Scholar
• Reuter-Lorenz, P. A., & Lustig, C. (2016). Working memory and executive functions in the aging brain In R. Cabeza, L. Nyberg, & D. C. Park (Eds.), Cognitive neuroscience of aging: Linking cognitive and cerebral aging (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. doi: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199372935.003.0010
   Google Scholar
• Reuter-Lorenz, P. A., & Cappell, K. A. (2008). Neurocognitive aging and the compensation hypothesis. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17, 177–182.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reuter-Lorenz, P. A., & Lustig, C. (2005). Brain aging: Reorganizing discoveries about the aging mind. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 15, 245–251.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reuter-Lorenz, P. A., & Park, D. C. (2010). Human neuroscience and the aging mind: A new look at old problems. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, 65B, 405–415.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reuter-Lorenz, P. A., & Park, D. C. (2014). How does it STAC up? Revisiting the scaffolding theory of aging and cognition. Neuropsychology Review, 24, 355–370.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riby, L. M., & Orme, E. (2013). A familiar pattern? Semantic memory contributes to the enhancement of visuo-spatial memories. Brain and Cognition, 81, 215–222.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rowe, G., Hasher, L., & Turcotte, J. (2008). Age differences in visuospatial working memory. Psychology and Aging, 23, 79–84.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salthouse, T. A. (1991). Mediation of adult age differences in cognition by reductions in working memory and speed of processing. Psychological Science, 2, 179–183.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salthouse, T. A. (1996). The processing-speed theory of adult age differences in cognition. Psychological Review, 103, 403–428.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Santa, J. L. (1975). Verbal coding and redintegrative memory for shapes. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 104, 286–294.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Schneider-Garces, N. J., Gordon, B. A., Brumback-Peltz, C. R., & Shin, E. (2010). Span, CRUNCH, and beyond: Working memory capacity and the aging brain. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 22, 655–669.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, A. D., Park, D. C., Cherry, K., & Berkovsky, K. (1990). Age differences in memory for concrete and abstract pictures. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, 45, 205–209.
   Google Scholar
• Smith, A. D., Park, D. C., Earles, J. L. K., Shaw, R. J., & Whiting, W. L. I. V. (1998). Age differences in context integration in memory. Psychology and Aging, 13, 21–28.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spreng, R. N., Wojtowicz, M., & Grady, C. L. (2010). Reliable differences in brain activity between young and old adults: A quantitative meta-analysis across multiple cognitive domains. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 34, 1178–1194.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Swanson, H. L. (2017). Verbal and visual-spatial working memory: What develops over a life span? Developmental Psychology, 53, 971–995.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tournier, I., & Postal, V. (2011). Strategy selection and aging: Impact of item concreteness in paired-associate task. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 18, 195–213.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Touron, D. R., Oransky, N., Meier, M. E., & Hines, J. C. (2010). Metacognitive monitoring and strategic behaviour in working memory performance. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 63, 1533–1551.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vasques, R., Garcia, R. B., & Galera, C. (2016). Short-term memory recall of visual patterns under static and dynamic visual noise. Psychology & Neuroscience, 9, 46–53.
   Google Scholar
• Verhaeghen, P., Palfai, T., & Johnson, M. P. (2006). Verbal labeling as an assimilation mnemonic for abstract visual stimuli: The sample case of recognition memory for Chinese characters. Memory & Cognition, 34, 795–803.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• White, E. J., & Grant, D. M. (2017). Electrocortical consequences of image processing: The influence of working memory load and worry. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, 261, 1–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Willis, S. L., Tennstedt, S. L., Marsiske, M., Ball, K., Elias, J., Koepke, K. M., & Wright, E. (2006). Long-term effects of cognitive training on everyday functional outcomes in older adults. JAMA, 296, 2805–2814.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar