Measurement of neurodevelopmental changes in children treated with radiation for brain tumors: what is a true ‘baseline?’

References

• Annett, R. D., Patel, S. K., & Phipps, S. (2015). Monitoring and assessment of neuropsychological outcomes as a standard of care in pediatric oncology. Pediatric Blood & Cancer, 62, S460–S513.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aukema, E. J., Caan, M. W. A., Oudhuis, N., Majoie, C. B. L. M., Vos, F. M., Reneman, L., … Schouten-van Meeteren, A. Y. (2009). White matter fractional anisotropy correlates with speed of processing and motor speed in young childhood cancer survivors. International Journal of Radiation Oncology, Biology, Physics, 74, 837–843.10.1016/j.ijrobp.2008.08.060
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baade, L. E., Heinrichs, R. J., Coady, E. L., & Stropes, J. (2011). Assessment of premorbid functioning in pediatric populations. In A. S. Davis (Ed.), The Handbook of Pediatric Neuropsychology (pp. 191–200). New York: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Barona, A., Reynolds, C. R., & Chastain, R. (1984). A demographically based index of premorbid intelligence for the WAIS-R. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 52, 885–887.10.1037/0022-006X.52.5.885
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Briere, M. E., Scott, J. G., McNall-Knapp, R. Y., & Adams, R. L. (2008). Cognitive outcome in pediatric brain tumor survivors: Delayed attention deficit at long-term follow-up. Pediatric Blood & Cancer, 50, 337–340.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Callu, D., Viguier, D., Laroussinie, F., Puget, S., Boddaert, N., Kieffer, V., … Dellatolal, G. (2009). Cognitive and academic outcome after benign or malignant cerebellar tumor in children. Cognitive & Behavioral Neurology, 22, 270–278.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campbell, D. P., & Fiske, D. W. (1959). Convergent and discriminant validation by the multitrait-multimethod matrix. Psychological Bulletin, 56, 81–105.10.1037/h0046016
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CBTRUS. (2011). CBTRUS statistical report: Primary brain and central nervous system tumors diagnosed in the United States in 2004-2007. Source: Central Brain Tumor Registry of the United States, Hinsdale, IL. www.cbtrus.org
   Google Scholar
• Conklin, H. M., Ashford, J. M., Di Pinto, M., Vaughan, C. G., Gioia, G. A., Merchant, T. E., … Wu, S. (2013). Computerized assessment of cognitive late effects among adolescent brain tumor survivors. Journal of Neuro-oncology, 113, 333–340.10.1007/s11060-013-1123-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Conklin, H. M., Li, C., Xiong, X., Ogg, R. J., & Merchant, T. E. (2008). Predicting change in academic abilities after conformal radiation therapy for localized ependymoma. Journal of Clinical Oncology, 26, 3965–3970.10.1200/JCO.2007.15.9970
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Copeland, D. R., deMoor, C., Moore, B. D., III, & Ater, J. L. (1999). Neurocognitive development of children after a cerebellar tumor in infancy: A longitudinal study. Journal of Clinical Oncology, 17, 3476–3486.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dennis, M. (1989). Language and the young damaged brain. In T. Boll & B. K. Bryant (Eds.), Clinical neuropsychology and brain function: Research, measurement, and practice (pp. 89–123). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
   Google Scholar
• Dennis, M., Spiegler, B. J., & Hetherington, R. (2000). New survivors for the new millennium: Cognitive risk and reserve in adults with childhood brain insults. Brain and Cognition, 42, 102–105.10.1006/brcg.1999.1174
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dennis, M., Spiegler, B. J., Hetherington, C. R., & Greenberg, M. L. (1996). Neuropsychological sequelae of the treatment of children with medulloblastoma. Journal of Neuro-oncology, 29, 91–101.10.1007/BF00165522
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dennis, M., Spiegler, B. J., Simic, N., Sinopoli, K. J., Wilkinson, A., Yeates, K. O., … Fletcher, J. M. (2014). Functional plasticity in childhood brain disorders: When, what, how, and whom to assess. Neuropsychology Review, 24, 389–408.10.1007/s11065-014-9261-x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Di Pinto, M., Conklin, H. M., Li, C., & Merchant, T. E. (2012). Learning and memory following conformal radiation therapy for pediatric craniopharyngioma and low-grade glioma. International Journal of Radiation Oncology, Biology, Physics, 84, e363–e369.10.1016/j.ijrobp.2012.03.066
   Google Scholar
• Elliot, C. D. (2007). Differential abilities scales (2nd ed.). Minneapolis, MN: Pearson.
   Google Scholar
• Embry, L., Annett, R. D., Kunin-Batson, A., Patel, S. K., Sands, S., Reaman, G., & Noll, R. B. (2012). Implementation of multi-site neurocognitive assessments within a pediatric cooperative group: Can it be done? Pediatric Blood and Cancer, 59, 536–539.10.1002/pbc.v59.3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feigle, H. (1956). Some major issues and developments in the philosophy of science of logical empiricism. In H. Feigle & M. Scriven (Eds.), Minnesota studies in the philosophy of science (Vol. 1, pp. 3–37), Minnesota: University of Minnesota Press.
   Google Scholar
• Flynn, J. R. (1999). Searching for justice: The discovery of IQ gains over time. American Psychologist, 54, 5–20.10.1037/0003-066X.54.1.5
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fouladi, M., Chintagumpala, M., Laningham, F. H., Ashley, D., Kellie, S. J., Langston, J. W., … Gahar, A. (2004). White matter lesions detected by magnetic resonance imaging after radiotherapy and high-dose chemotherapy in children with medulloblastoma or primitive neuroectodermal tumor. Journal of Clinical Oncology, 22, 4551–4560.10.1200/JCO.2004.03.058
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fouladi, M., Gilger, E., Kocak, M., Wallace, D., Buchanan, G., Reeves, C., … Mulhern, R. (2005). Intellectual and functional outcome of children 3 years old or younger who have CNS malignancies. Journal of Clinical Oncology, 23, 7152–7160.10.1200/JCO.2005.01.214
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fouladi, M., Wallace, D., Langston, J. W., Mulhern, R., Rose, S. R., Gajjar, A., … Heideman, R. L. (2003). Survival and functional outcome of children with hypothalamic/chiasmatic tumors. Cancer, 97, 1084–1092.10.1002/(ISSN)1097-0142
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Francis, D. J., Fletcher, J. M., Stuebing, K. K., Davidson, K. C., & Thompson, N. M. (1991). Analysis of change: Modeling individual growth. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology., 59, 27–37.10.1037/0022-006X.59.1.27
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• George, A. P., Kuehn, S. M., Vassilyadi, M., Richards, P. M., Parlow, S. E., Keene, D. L., … Ventureyra, E. C. (2003). Cognitive sequelae in children with posterior fossa tumors. Pediatric Neurology, 28, 42–47.10.1016/S0887-8994(02)00471-X
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldwein, J. W., Radcliffe, J., Johnson, J., Moshang, T., Packer, R. J., Sutton, L. N., … D’Ango, G. J. (1996). Updated results of a pilot study of low dose craniospinal irradiation plus chemotherapy for children under five with cerebellar primitive neuroectodermal tumors (medulloblastoma). International Journal of Radiation Oncology, Biology, Physics, 34, 899–904.10.1016/0360-3016(95)02080-2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldwein, J. W., Radcliffe, J., Packer, R. J., Sutton, L. N., Lange, B., Rorke, L. B., … D’Angelo, G. J. (1993). Results of a pilot study of low-dose craniospinal radiation therapy plus chemotherapy for children younger than 5 years with primitive neuroectodermal tumors. Cancer, 71, 2647–2652.10.1002/(ISSN)1097-0142
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gupta, T., Jalali, R., Goswami, S., Nair, V., Moiyadi, A., Epari, S., & Sarin, R. (2012). Early clinical outcomes demonstrate preserved cognitive functioning in children with average-risk medulloblastoma when treated with hyperfractionated radiation therapy. International Journal of Radiation Oncology, Biology Physics, 83, 1534–1540.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hardy, K. K., Willard, V. W., Allen, T. M., & Bonner, M. J. (2013). Working memory training in survivors of pediatric cancer: A randomized pilot study. Psycho-Oncology, 22, 1856–1865.10.1002/pon.3222
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huse, J. T., & Holland, E. C. (2010). Targeting brain cancer: Advances in the molecular pathology of malignant glioma and medulloblastoma. Nature Reviews Cancer, 10, 319–331.10.1038/nrc2818
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kahalley, L. S., Winter, A., Stancel, H. H., Ris, M. D., & Gragert, M. (in press). Utility of the General Ability Index (GAI) with survivors of pediatric brain tumors: Comparison to full scale IQ and premorbid estimates. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology. doi:10.1080/13803395.2016.1189883
   Google Scholar
• Kao, G. D., Goldwein, J. W., Schultz, D. J., Radcliffe, J., Sutton, L., & Lange, B. (1994). The impact of perioperative factors on subsequent intelligence quotient deficits in children treated for medulloblastoma/posterior fossa primitive neuroectodermal tumors. Cancer, 74, 965–971.10.1002/(ISSN)1097-0142
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kazak, A., Alderfer, M., Streisand, R., Simms, S., Rourke, M., Barakat, L. P., … Cnaan, A. (2004). Treatment of posttraumatic stress symptoms in adolescent survivors of childhood cancer and their families: A randomized clinical trial. Journal of Family Psychology, 18, 493–504.10.1037/0893-3200.18.3.493
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kieffer-Renaur, V., Viguier, D., Raquin, M., Laurent-Vannier, A., Habrand, J., Dellatolas, G., … Grill, J. (2005). Therapeutic schedules influence the pattern of intellectual decline after irradiation of posterior fossa tumors. Pediatric Blood & Cancer, 45, 814–819.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kiehna, E. N., Mulhern, R. K., Li, C., Xiong, X., & Merchant, T. E. (2006). Changes in attentional performance of children and young adults with localized primary brain tumors after conformal radiation therapy. Journal of Clinical Oncology, 24, 5283–5290.10.1200/JCO.2005.03.8547
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krull, K. R., Scott, J. G., & Sherer, M. (1995). Estimation of premorbid intelligence from combined performance and demographic variables. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 9, 83–88.10.1080/13854049508402063
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mabbott, D. J., Monsalves, E., Spiegler. B. J., Bartels: U., Janzen, L., Guger, S., … Bouffet, E. (2011). Longitudinal evaluation of neurocognitive function after treatment for central nervous system germ cell tumors in childhood. Cancer, 117, 5402–5411.10.1002/cncr.v117.23
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mabbott, D. J., Penkman, L., Witol, A., Strother, D., Bouffet E. (2008). Core neurocognitive functions in children treated for posterior fossa tumors. Neuropsychology, 22, 159–168.10.1037/0894-4105.22.2.159
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mabbott, D. J., Spiegler, B. J., Greenberg, M. L., Rutka, J. T., Hyder, D. J., & Bouffet, E. (2005). Serial evaluation of academic and behavioral outcome after treatment with cranial radiation in childhood. Journal of Clinical Oncology, 23, 2256–2263.10.1200/JCO.2005.01.158
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maddrey, A. M., Bergeron, J. A., Lombardo, E. R., McDonald, N. K., Mulne, A. F., Barenberg, P. D., … Bowers, D. C. (2005). Neuropsychological performance and quality of life of 10 year survivors of childhood medulloblastoma. Journal of Neuro-oncology, 72, 245–253.10.1007/s11060-004-3009-z
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGrew, K. S., LaForte, E. M., & Schrank, F. A. (2014). Woodcock Johnson IV Technical Manual. Riverside: Riverside Publishing Company.
   Google Scholar
• McSweeny, A. J., Naugle, R. I., Chelune, G. J., & Lüders, H. (1993). T scores for change: An illustration of a regression approach to depicting change in clinical neuropsychology. Clinical Neuropsychologist, 7, 300–312.10.1080/13854049308401901
   Google Scholar
• Merchant, T. E., Conklin, H. M., Wu, S., Lustig, R. H., & Xiong, X. (2009). Late effects of conformal radiation therapy for pediatric patients with low-grade glioma: Prospective evaluation of cognitive, endocrine, and hearing deficits. Journal of Clinical Oncology, 27, 3691–3697.10.1200/JCO.2008.21.2738
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Merchant, T. E., Kiehna, E. N., Li, C., Shukla, H., Sengupta, S., Xiong, X., … Mulhern, R. K. (2006). Modeling radiation dosimetry to predict cognitive outcomes in pediatric patients with CNS embryonal tumors including medulloblastoma. International Journal of Radiation Oncology, Biology, Physics, 65, 210–221.10.1016/j.ijrobp.2005.10.038
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Merchant, T. E., Kiehna, E. N., Li, C., Xiong, X., & Mulhern, R. K. (2005). Radiation dosimetry predicts IQ after conformal radiation therapy in pediatric patients with localized ependymoma. International Journal of Radiation Oncology, Biology, Physics, 63, 1546–1554.10.1016/j.ijrobp.2005.05.028
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Merchant, T.E., Kiehna, E. N., Sanford, R. A., Mulhern, R. K., Thompson, S. J., Wilson, M.W., … Kun, L. E. (2002). Craniopharyngioma: the St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital experience 1984–2001. International Journal of Radiation Oncology, Biology, Physics, 53, 533–542.10.1016/S0360-3016(02)02799-2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Merchant, T. E., Lee, H., Zhu, J., Xiong, X., Wheeler, G., Phipps, S., … Saufaro, R. A. (2004). The effects of hydrocephalus on intelligence quotient in children with localized infratentorial ependymoma before and after focal radiation therapy. Journal of Neurosurgery, 101, 159–168.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moher, D., Tetzlaff, J., Tricco, A. C., Sampson, M., & Altman, D. G. (2007). Epidemiology and reporting characteristics of systematic reviews. PloS Medicine, 4, 0447–0455.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moxon-Emre, I., Bouffet, E., Taylor, M. D., Laperriere, N., Scantlebury, N., Law, N., … Mabbott, D. (2014). Impact of craniospinal dose, boost volume, and neurologic complications on intellectual outcome in patients With medulloblastoma. Journal of Clinical Oncology, 32, 1760–1768.10.1200/JCO.2013.52.3290
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mulhern, R. K., Palmer, S. L., Merchant, T. E., Wallace, D., Kocak, M., Brouwers, P., … Gajjar, A. (2005). Neurocognitive consequences of risk-adapted therapy for childhood medulloblastoma. Journal of Clinical Oncology, 23, 5511–5519.10.1200/JCO.2005.00.703
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mulhern, R. K., Palmer, S. L., Reddick, W. E., Glass, J. O., Kun, L. E., Taylor, J., … Gajjar, A. (2001). Risks of young age for selected neurocognitive deficits in medulloblastoma are associated with white matter loss. Journal of Clinical Oncology, 19, 472–479.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mulhern, R. K., Reddick, W. E., Palmer, S. L., Glass, J. O., Elkin, T. D., Kun, L. E., … Gajjar, A. (1999). Neurocognitive deficits in medulloblastoma survivors and white matter loss. Annals of Neurology, 46, 834–841.10.1002/(ISSN)1531-8249
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nagel, B. J., Delis, D. C., Palmer, S. L., Reeves, C., Gajjar, A., & Mulhern, R. K. (2006). Early patterns of verbal memory impairment in children treated for medulloblastoma. Neuropsychology, 20, 105–112.10.1037/0894-4105.20.1.105
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neglia, J. P., Robison, L. L., Stovall, M., Liu, Y., Packer, R. J., Hammond, S., et al. (2006). New primary neoplasms of the central nervous system in survivors of childhood cancer: a report from the childhood cancer survivor study. JNCI Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 98, 1528–1537.10.1093/jnci/djj411
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Netson, K. L., Conklin, H. M., Wu, S., Xiong, X., & Merchant, T. E. (2012). A 5-year investigation of children’s adaptive functioning following conformal radiation therapy for localized ependymoma. International Journal of Radiation Oncolology, Biology, Physics, 84, 217–223.10.1016/j.ijrobp.2011.10.043
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nicholson, S. H., Fennell, L., & Butler, R. W. (2008). Childhood brain tumors. In C. Meyers & J. Perry (Eds.), Cognition and Cancer (pp. 198–210). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9780511545900
   Google Scholar
• Noll, R. B., Patel, S. K., Embry, L., Hardy, K. K., Pelletier, W., Annett, R. D., … Barakat, L. P. (2013). Children’s oncology group’s 2013 blueprint for research: Behavioral science. Pediatric Blood & Cancer, 60, 1048–1054.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O'Neil, S., Ji, L., Buranahirun, C., Azoff, J., Dhall, G., Khatua, S., Patel, S., … Finlay, J. (2011). Neurocognitive outcomes in pediatric and adolescent patients with central nervous system germinoma treated with a strategy of chemotherapy followed by reduced-dose and volume irradiation. Pediatric Blood & Cancer, 57, 669–673.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Packer, R. J., Sposto, R., Atkins, T. E., Sutton, L. N., Bruce, D. A., Seigle, K.R., … Schut, L. (1987). Quality of life in children with primitive neuroectodermal tumors (medulloblastoma) of posterior fossa. Pediatric Neuroscience, 13, 169–175.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Palmer, S. L., Gajjar, A., Reddick, W. E., Glass, J. O., Kun, L.E., Wu, S., … Mulhern, R. K. (2003). Predicting intellectual outcome among children treated with 35–40 Gy craniospinal irradiation for medulloblastoma. Neuropsychology, 17, 548–555.10.1037/0894-4105.17.4.548
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Palmer, S. L., Goloubeva, O., Reddick, W. E., Glass, J. O., Gajjar, A., Kun, L., … Mulhern, R. K. (2001). Patterns of intellectual development among survivors of pediatric medulloblastoma: A longitudinal analysis. Journal of Clinical Oncology, 19, 2302–2308.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Porter, K. R., McCarthy, B. J., Freels, S., Kim, Y., & Davis, F. G. (2010). Prevalence estimates for primary brain tumors in the United States by age, gender, behavior, and histology. Neuro-Oncology, 12, 520–527.10.1093/neuonc/nop066
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Radcliffe, J., Bunin, G. R., Sutton, L. N., Goldwein, J. W., & Phillips, P. C. (1994). Cognitive deficits in long-term survivors of childhood medulloblastoma and other noncortical tumors: Age-dependent effects of whole brain radiation. International Journal of Developmental Neuroscience, 12, 327–334.10.1016/0736-5748(94)90081-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reddick, W. E., Glass, J. O., Palmer, S. L., Wu, S., Gajjar, A., Langston, J. W., … Mulhern, R. K. (2005). Atypical white matter volume development in children following craniospinal irradiation. Neuro-Oncology, 7, 12–19.10.1215/S1152851704000079
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• St. James-Roberts, I. (1979). Neurological plasticity, recovery from brain insult, and child development. In H. W. Reese & L. P. Lipsitt (Eds.), Advances in child development and behavior (pp. 3–61). New York, NY: Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Reeves, C. B., Palmer, S. L., Reddick, W. E., Merchant, T. E., Buchanan, G. M., Gajjar, A., … Mulhern, R. K. (2006). Attention and memory functioning among pediatric patients with medulloblastoma. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 31, 272–280.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ries, L. A. G., Harkins, D., Krapcho, M., Mariotto, A., Miller, B. A., Feuer, E. J., … Eowardg, B. K. (Eds.), (2006). SEER cancer statistics review, 1975-2003. Retrieved from seer.cancer.gov/csr/1975_2003/
   Google Scholar
• Ris, M. D. (2007). Lessons in pediatric neuropsycho-oncology: What we have learned since Johnny Gunther. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 32, 1029–1037.10.1093/jpepsy/jsm018
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ris, M. D., & Hiscock, M. (2013). Modeling cognitive aging following CNS injury: Reserve and the Flynn effect. In I. S. Baron & C. Rey-Casserly (Eds.), Pediatric Neuropsychology: Medical Advances and Lifespan Outcomes (pp. 395–421). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Ris, M. D., & Noll, R. B. (1994). Long-term neurobehavioral outcome in pediatric brain tumor patients: Review and methodological critique. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 16, 21–42.10.1080/01688639408402615
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ris, M. D., Packer, R., Goldwein, J., Jones-Wallace, D., & Boyett, J. M. (2001). Neurocognitive outcome following reduced-dose radiation therapy plus adjuvant chemotherapy for medulloblastoma: A Children’s Cancer Group Study. Journal of Clinical Oncology, 19, 3470–3476.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ris, M. D., Walsh, K., Wallace, D., Armstrong, F. D., Holmes, E., Gajjar, A., … Packer, R. J. (2013). Intellectual and academic outcome following two chemotherapy regimens and radiotherapy for average-risk medulloblastoma: COG A9961. Pediatric Blood & Cancer, 60, 1350–1357.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riva, D., Giorgi, C., Nichelli, F., Bulgheroni, S., Massimino, M., Cefalo, G., … Pantaleoni, C. (2002). Intrathecal methotrexate affects higher functions in children with medulloblastoma. Neurology, 59, 1561–1563.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robertson, P. L., Murasko, K. M., Holmes, E. J., Sposto, R., Packer, R. J., Gajjar, A., … Allen, J. C. (2006). Incidence and severity of postoperative cerebellar mutism syndrome in children with medulloblastoma: A prospective study by the Children’s Oncology Group. Journal of Neurosurgery, 105, 444–451.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sands, S. A., Kellie, S. J., Davidow, A. L., Diez, B., Villablanca, J., Weiner, H. L., … Finlay, J. L. (2001). Long-term quality of life and neuropsychologic functioning for patients with CNS germ-cell tumors: From the First International CNS Germ-Cell Tumor Study. Neuro-Oncology, 3, 174–183.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sattler, J. M. (2008). Assessment of Children: Cognitive Foundations (5th ed.). San Diego, CA: Jerome Sattler.
   Google Scholar
• Saury, J. M., & Emanuelson, I. (2011). Cognitive consequences of the treatment of medulloblastoma among children. Pediatric Neurology, 44, 21–30.10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2010.07.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sparrow, S. S., Cicchetti, D. V., & Balla, D. A. (2005). Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales (2nd ed.). Circle Pines, MN: AGS Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Spiegler, B. J., Bouffet, E., Greenberg, M. L., Rutka, J. T., & Mabbott, D. J. (2004). Change in neurocognitive functioning after treatment with cranial radiation in childhood. Journal of Clinical Oncology, 22, 706–713.10.1200/JCO.2004.05.186
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stargatt, R., Rosenfeld, J. V., Anderson, V., Hassall, T., Maixner, W., & Ashley, D. (2006). Intelligence and adaptive function in children diagnosed with brain tumour during infancy. Journal of Neuro-oncology, 80, 295–303.10.1007/s11060-006-9187-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stargatt, R., Rosenfeld, J. V., Maixner, W., & Ashley, D. (2007). Multiple factors contribute to neuropsychological outcome in children with posterior fossa tumors. Developmental Neuropsychology, 32, 729–748.10.1080/87565640701376151
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stuss, D. T., & Alexander, M. P. (2000). Executive functions and the frontal lobes: A conceptual view. Psychological Research, 63, 289–298.10.1007/s004269900007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Trahan, L. H., Stuebing, K. K., Fletcher, J. M., & Hiscock, M. (2014). The Flynn effect: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 140, 1332–1360.10.1037/a0037173
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wong, C. S., & Van der Kogel, A. J. (2004). Mechanisms of radiation injury to the central nervous system: Implications for neuroprotection. Molecular Interventions, 4, 273–284.10.1124/mi.4.5.7
   PubMedGoogle Scholar