Performance validity testing in neuropsychology: a clinical guide, critical review, and update on a rapidly evolving literature

References

• An, K. Y., Kaploun, K., Erdodi, L. A., & Abeare, C. A. (2017). Performance validity in undergraduate research participants: A comparison of failure rates across tests and cutoffs. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 31(1), 193–206. doi:10.1080/13854046.2016.1217046
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Armistead-Jehle, P., Cooper, D. B., & Vanderploeg, R. D. (2016). The role of performance validity tests in the assessment of cognitive functioning after military concussion: A replication and extension. Applied Neuropsychology: Adult, 23, 264–273. doi:10.1080/23279095.2015.1055564
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Armistead-Jehle, P., & Hansen, C. L. (2011). Comparison of the repeatable battery for the assessment of neuropsychological status effort index and stand-alone symptom validity tests in a military sample. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 26, 592–601. doi:10.1093/arclin/acr049
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arnold, G., Boone, K. B., Lu, P., Dean, A., Wen, J., Nitch, S., & McPherson, S. (2005). Sensitivity and specificity of finger tapping test scores for the detection of suspect effort. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 19(1), 105–120. doi:10.1080/13854040490888567
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Axelrod, B. N., Fichtenberg, N. L., Millis, S. R., & Wertheimer, J. C. (2006). Detecting incomplete effort with digit span from the wechsler adult intelligence scale – Third edition. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 20(3), 513–523. doi:10.1080/13854040590967117
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Axelrod, B. N., Wall, J. R., & Estes, B. W. (2008). Use of the binomial distribution to predict impairment: Application in a nonclinical sample. Applied Neuropsychology, 15, 170–175. doi:10.1080/09084280802324184
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Babikian, T., Boone, K. B., Lu, P., & Arnold, G. (2006). Sensitivity and specificity of various digit span scores in the detection of suspect effort. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 20(1), 145–159. doi:10.1080/13854040590947362
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bell-Sprinkel, T. L., Boone, K. B., Miora, D., Cottingham, M., Victor, T., Ziegler, E., … Wright, M. (2013). Re-examination of the rey word recognition test. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 27(3), 516–527. doi:10.1080/13854046.2012.744853
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berry, D. T., Harp, J. P., Koehl, L. M., & Combs, H. L. (2017). Applying diagnostic standards to performance validity tests and the individual case. In S. C. Bowden (Ed.), Neuropsychological assessment in the age of evidence-based practice (pp. 239–257). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Berthelson, L., Mulchan, S. S., Odland, A. P., Miller, L. J., & Mittenberg, W. (2013). False positive diagnosis of malingering due to the use of multiple effort tests. Brain Injury, 27(7–8), 909–916. doi:10.3109/02699052.2013.793400
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bianchini, K. J., Greve, K. W., & Love, J. M. (2003). Definite malingered neurocognitive dysfunction in moderate/severe traumatic brain injury. The Clinical Neuropsychologist (Neuropsychology, Development and Cognition: Section D), 17(4), 574–580. doi:10.1076/clin.17.4.574.27946
   Google Scholar
• Bilder, R. M., Sugar, C. A., & Hellemann, G. S. (2014). Cumulative false positive rates given multiple performance validity tests: Commentary on Davis and Millis (2014) and Larrabee (2014). The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 28(8), 1212–1223. doi:10.1080/13854046.2014.969774
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Binder, L. M. (2000). The Portland digit recognition test: A review of validation data and clinical use. Journal of Forensic Neuropsychology, 2, 27–41.
   Google Scholar
• Binder, L. M., Iverson, G. L., & Brooks, B. L. (2009). To err is human: “Abnormal” neuropsychological scores and variability are common in healthy adults. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 24, 31–46. doi:10.1093/arclin/acn001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Binder, L. M., & Kelly, M. P. (1996). Portland digit recognition test performance by brain dysfunction patients without financial incentive. Assessment, 3, 403–409.10.1177/107319119600300405
   Google Scholar
• Blaskewitz, N., Merten, T., & Brockhaus, R. (2009). Detection of suboptimal effort with the Rey Complex Figure Test and Recognition Trial. Applied Neuropsychology, 16(1), 54–61. doi:10.1080/09084280802644227
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boone, K. B. (2007). Assessment of feigned cognitive impairment. A neuropsychological perspective. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Boone, K. B. (2009). The need for continuous and comprehensive sampling of effort/response bias during neuropsychological examinations. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 23(4), 729–741. doi:10.1080/13854040802427803
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boone, K. B. (2013a). Assessment of neurocognitive symptom validity. In K. B. Boone (Ed.), Clinical practice of forensic neuropsychology (pp. 22–72). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Boone, K. B. (2013b). Clinical practice of forensic neuropsychology: An evidence-based approach. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Boone, K. B., Lu, P., Sherman, D., Palmer, B., Back, C., Shamieh, E., … Berman, N. G. (2000). Validation of a new technique to detect malingering of cognitive symptoms: The b Test. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 15(3), 227–241.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boone, K. B., Lu, P., & Wen, J. (2005). Comparison of various RAVLT scores in the detection of noncredible memory performance. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 20(3), 301–319. doi:10.1016/j.acn.2004.08.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boone, K. B., Victor, T. L., Wen, J., Razani, J., & Ponton, M. (2007). The association between neuropsychological scores and ethnicity, language, and acculturation variables in a large patient population. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 22(3), 355–365. doi:10.1016/j.acn.2007.01.010
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bortnik, K. E., Horner, M. D., & Bachman, D. L. (2013). Performance on standard indexes of effort among patients with Dementia. Applied Neuropsychology: Adult, 20, 233–242. doi:10.1080/09084282.2012.695757
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brooks, B. L., Strauss, E., Sherman, E. M., Iverson, G. L., & Slick, D. J. (2009). Developments in neuropsychological assessment: Refining psychometric and clinical interpretive methods. Canadian Psychology/Psychologie canadienne, 50, 196–209. doi:10.1037/a0016066
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bunnage, M. (2017). How do I know when a diagnostic test works? In S. C. Bowden (Ed.), Neuropsychological assessment in the age of evidence-based practice (pp. 223–237). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Bush, S. S. (2005). Independent and court-ordered forensic neuropsychological examinations: Official statement of the National Academy of Neuropsychology. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 20(8), 997–1007. doi:10.1016/j.acn.2005.06.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bush, S. (2009). What to do after making the determination of malingering. In J. E. Morgan & J. J. Sweet (Eds.), Neuropsychology of malingering casebook (pp. 530–539). New York, NY: Psychology Press.
   Google Scholar
• Bush, S. S. (Ed.). (2017). APA handbook of forensic neuropsychology. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
   Google Scholar
• Bush, S. S., Ruff, R. M., Troster, A. I., Barth, J. T., Koffler, S. P., Pliskin, N. H., … Silver, C. H. (2005). Symptom validity assessment: Practice issues and medical necessity NAN policy & planning committee. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 20(4), 419–426. doi:10.1016/j.acn.2005.02.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carone, D. A., Iverson, G. L., & Bush, S. S. (2010). A Model to Approaching and Providing Feedback to Patients Regarding Invalid Test Performance in Clinical Neuropsychological Evaluations. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 24(5), 759–778. doi:10.1080/13854041003712951
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chafetz, M. (2011). Reducing the Probability of False Positives in Malingering Detection of Social Security Disability Claimants. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 25(7), 1239–1252. doi:10.1080/13854046.2011.586785
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chafetz, M. D., Abrahams, J. P., & Kohlmaier, J. (2007). Malingering on the Social Security disability consultative exam: A new rating scale. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 22(1), 1–14. doi:10.1016/j.acn.2006.10.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chafetz, M. D., Prentkowski, E., & Rao, A. (2011). To work or not to work: Motivation (not low IQ) determines symptom validity test findings. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 26(4), 306–313. doi:10.1093/arclin/acr030
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chafetz, M. D., Williams, M. A., Ben-Porath, Y. S., Bianchini, K. J., Boone, K. B., Kirkwood, M. W., … Ord, J. S. (2015). Official position of the American academy of clinical neuropsychology social security administration policy on validity testing: Guidance and recommendations for change. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 29(6), 723–740. doi:10.1080/13854046.2015.1099738
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chelune, G. J. (2017). Evidence-based practices in neuropsychology. In S. C. Bowden (Ed.), Neuropsychological assessment in the age of evidence-based practice (pp. 155–181). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Chiu, V. Y., & Lee, T. C. (2002). Detection of malingering behavior at different levels of task difficulty in Hong Kong Chinese. Rehabilitation Psychology, 47, 194–203.10.1037/0090-5550.47.2.194
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cochrane, H. J., Baker, G. A., & Meudell, P. R. (1998). Simulating a memory impairment: Can amnestic simplicity outperform simulators? British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 37, 31–48.10.1111/bjc.1998.37.issue-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dandachi-FitzGerald, B., Merckelbach, H., & Ponds, R. W. (2017). Neuropsychologists’ ability to predict distorted symptom presentation. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 39(3), 257–264. doi:10.1080/13803395.2016.1223278
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davis, J. J., & Millis, S. R. (2014a). Examination of performance validity test failure in relation to number of tests administered. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 28(2), 199–214. doi:10.1080/13854046.2014.884633
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davis, J. J., & Millis, S. R. (2014b). Reply to commentary by Bilder, Sugar, and Helleman (2014 this issue) on minimizing false positive error with multiple performance validity tests. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 28(8), 1224–1229. doi:10.1080/13854046.2014.987167
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davis, J. J., Millis, S. R., & Axelrod, B. N. (2012). Derivation of an embedded Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test performance validity indicator. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 26(8), 1397–1408. doi:10.1080/13854046.2012.728627
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dean, A. C., Victor, T. L., Boone, K. B., & Arnold, G. (2008). The relationship of IQ to effort test performance. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 22(4), 705–722. doi:10.1080/13854040701440493
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dean, A. C., Victor, T. L., Boone, K. B., Philpott, L. M., & Hess, R. A. (2009). Dementia and effort test performance. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 23(1), 133–152. doi:10.1080/13854040701819050
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Denning, J. H. (2012). The efficiency and accuracy of the Test of Memory Malingering trial 1, errors on the first 10 items of the test of memory malingering, and five embedded measures in predicting invalid test performance. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 27(4), 417–432. doi:10.1093/arclin/acs044
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Denning, J. H. (2014). Combining the test of memory malingering trial 1 with behavioral responses improves the detection of effort test failure. Applied Neuropsychology: Adult, 21(4), 269–277. doi:10.1080/23279095.2013.811076
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DeRight, J., & Jorgensen, R. S. (2015). I just want my research credit: Frequency of suboptimal effort in a non-clinical healthy undergraduate sample. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 29(1), 101–117. doi:10.1080/13854046.2014.989267
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dunham, K. J., & Denney, R. L. (2016). Development of the poor validity profile analysis for the medical symptom validity test. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 31, 944–953. doi:10.1093/arclin/acw060
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Erdodi, L. A., Kirsch, N. L., Lajiness-O’Neill, R., Vingilis, E., & Medoff, B. (2014). Comparing the Recognition Memory Test and the Word Choic Test in a mixed clinical sample: Are they equivalent? Psychological Injury and Law, 7, 255–263.10.1007/s12207-014-9197-8
   Google Scholar
• Etherton, J. L., Bianchini, K. J., Ciota, M. A., Heinly, M. T., & Greve, K. W. (2006). Pain, malingering and the WAIS-III Working Memory Index. The Spine Journal, 6(1), 61–71. doi:10.1016/j.spinee.2005.05.382
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Faust, D., Guilmette, T. J., Hart, K., Arkes, H. R., Fishburne, F. J., & Davey, L. (1988). Neuropsychologists’ training, experience, and judgment accuracy. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 3(2), 145–163.10.1093/arclin/3.2.145
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Faust, D., Hart, K., & Guilmette, T. J. (1988). Pediatric malingering: The capacity of children to fake believable deficits on neuropsychological testing. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56(4), 578–582.10.1037/0022-006X.56.4.578
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fazio, R. L., Denning, J. H., & Denney, R. L. (2017). TOMM Trial 1 as a performance validity indicator in a criminal forensic sample. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 31(1), 251–267. doi:10.1080/13854046.2016.1213316
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fox, D. D. (2011). Symptom validity test failure indicates invalidity of neuropsychological tests. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 25(3), 488–495. doi:10.1080/13854046.2011.554443
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gasquoine, P. G., Weimer, A. A., & Amador, A. (2017). Specificity rates for non-clinical, bilingual, Mexican Americans on three popular performance validity measures. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 31(3), 587–597. doi:10.1080/13854046.2016.1277786
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gervais, R. O., Green, P., Allen, L. M., & Iverson, G. L. (2001). Effects of coaching on symptom validity testing in chronic pain patients presenting for disability assessments. Journal of Forensic Neuropsychology, 2, 1–19.10.1300/J151v02n02_01
   Google Scholar
• Goldberg, J. O., & Miller, H. R. (1986). Performance of psychiatric inpatients and intellectually deficient individuals on a task that assesses the validity of memory complaints. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 42(5), 792–795.10.1002/(ISSN)1097-4679
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grabyan, J. M., Collins, R. L., Alverson, W. A., & Chen, D. K. (2017). Performance on the Test of Memory Malingering is predicted by the number of errors on its first 10 items on an inpatient epilepsy monitoring unit. The Clinical Neuropsychologist. Advance online publication. Retrieved from http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13854046.2017.1368715.
   Google Scholar
• Graue, L. O., Berry, D. T., Clark, J. A., Sollman, M. J., Cardi, M., Hopkins, J., & Werline, D. (2007). Identification of feigned mental retardation using the new generation of malingering detection instruments: Preliminary findings. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 21(6), 929–942. doi:10.1080/13854040600932137
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Green, P., Rohling, M. L., Lees-Haley, P. R., & Allen, L. M., 3rd (2001). Effort has a greater effect on test scores than severe brain injury in compensation claimants. Brain Injury, 15(12), 1045–1060. doi:10.1080/02699050110088254
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greve, K. W., & Bianchini, K. J. (2006). Should the Retention trial of the Test of Memory Malingering be optional? Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 21(1), 117–119. doi:10.1016/j.acn.2005.06.009
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greve, K. W., & Bianchini, K. J. (2007). Detection of cognitive malingering with tests of executive function. In G. J. Larrabee (Ed.), Assessment of malingered neuropsychological deficits (pp. 171–225). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Greve, K. W., Bianchini, K. J., & Doane, B. M. (2006). Classification accuracy of the test of memory malingering in traumatic brain injury: Results of a known-groups analysis. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 28, 1176–1190. doi:10.1080/13803390500263550
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greve, K. W., Ord, J., Curtis, K. L., Bianchini, K. J., & Brennan, A. (2008). Detecting malingering in traumatic brain injury and chronic pain: A comparison of three forced-choice symptom validity tests. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 22(5), 896–918. doi:10.1080/13854040701565208
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guilmette, T. J., Whelihan, W. M., Hart, K. J., Sparadeo, F. R., & Buongiorno, G. (1996). Order effects in the administration of a forced-choice procedure for detection of malingering in disability claimants’ evaluations. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 83(3), 1007–1016. doi:10.2466/pms.1996.83.3.1007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gunstad, J., & Suhr, J. A. (2001). Efficacy of the full and abbreviated forms of the Portland Digit Recognition Test: Vulnerability to coaching. The Clinical Neuropsychologist (Neuropsychology, Development and Cognition: Section D), 15(3), 397–404. doi:10.1076/clin.15.3.397.10271
   Google Scholar
• Hanley, J. R., Baker, G. A., & Ledson, S. (1999). Detecting the faking of amnesia: A comparison of the effectiveness of three different techniques for distinguishing simulators from patients with amnesia. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology (Neuropsychology, Development and Cognition: Section A), 21(1), 59–69. doi:10.1076/jcen.21.1.59.936
   Google Scholar
• Heaton, R. K., Smith, H. H., Jr., Lehman, R. A., & Vogt, A. T. (1978). Prospects for faking believable deficits on neuropsychological testing. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 46(5), 892–900.10.1037/0022-006X.46.5.892
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heilbronner, R. L., Sweet, J. J., Morgan, J. E., Larrabee, G. J., Millis, S. R., & Conference, P. (2009). American Academy of Clinical Neuropsychology Consensus Conference Statement on the neuropsychological assessment of effort, response bias, and malingering. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 23(7), 1093–1129. doi:10.1080/13854040903155063
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heinly, M. T., Greve, K. W., Bianchini, K. J., Love, J. M., & Brennan, A. (2005). WAIS digit span-based indicators of malingered neurocognitive dysfunction: Classification accuracy in traumatic brain injury. Assessment, 12(4), 429–444. doi:10.1177/1073191105281099
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Horner, M. D., Turner, T. H., VanKirk, K. K., & Denning, J. H. (2017). An intervention to decrease the occurrence of invalid data on neuropsychological evaluation. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 32(2), 228–237. doi:10.1093/arclin/acw094
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Howe, L. L., Anderson, A. M., Kaufman, D. A., Sachs, B. C., & Loring, D. W. (2007). Characterization of the Medical Symptom Validity Test in evaluation of clinically referred memory disorders clinic patients. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 22(6), 753–761. doi:10.1016/j.acn.2007.06.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Howe, L. L., & Loring, D. W. (2009). Classification accuracy and predictive ability of the medical symptom validity test’s dementia profile and general memory impairment profile. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 23(2), 329–342. doi:10.1080/13854040801945060
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hurley, K. E., & Deal, W. P. (2006). Assessment instruments measuring malingering used with individuals who have mental retardation: Potential problems and issues. Mental Retardation, 44(2), 112–119. doi:10.1352/0047-6765(2006)44[112:AIMMUW]2.0.CO;2
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Inman, T. H., & Berry, D. T. (2002). Cross-validation of indicators of malingering: A comparison of nine neuropsychological tests, four tests of malingering, and behavioral observations. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 17(1), 1–23.10.1093/arclin/17.1.1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iverson, G. L. (2005). Outcome from mild traumatic brain injury. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 18(3), 301–317. doi:10.1097/01.yco.0000165601.29047.ae
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iverson, G. L., & Franzen, M. D. (1996). Using multiple objective memory procedures to detect simulated malingering. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 18(1), 38–51. doi:10.1080/01688639608408260
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iverson, G. L., & Tulsky, D. S. (2003). Detecting malingering on the WAIS-III. Unusual Digit Span performance patterns in the normal population and in clinical groups. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 18(1), 1–9.10.1093/arclin/18.1.1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson, J. L., & Lesniak-Karpiak, K. (1997). The effect of warning on malingering on memory and motor tasks in college samples. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 12(3), 231–238.10.1093/arclin/12.3.231
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones, A. (2013). Victoria Symptom Validity Test: Cutoff scores for psychometrically defined malingering groups in a military sample. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 27(8), 1373–1394. doi:10.1080/13854046.2013.851740
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kanser, R. J., Rapport, L. J., Bashem, J. R., Billings, N. M., Hanks, R. A., Axelrod, B. N., & Miller, J. B. (2017). Strategies of successful and unsuccessful simulators coached to feign traumatic brain injury. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 31(3), 644–653. doi:10.1080/13854046.2016.1278040
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kapur, N. (1994). The coin-in-the-hand test: A new “bed-side” test for the detection of malingering in patients with suspected memory disorder. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 57(3), 385–386.10.1136/jnnp.57.3.385
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim, M. S., Boone, K. B., Victor, T., Marion, S. D., Amano, S., Cottingham, M. E., … Zeller, M. (2010). The Warrington Recognition Memory Test for Words as a measure of response bias: Total score and response time cutoffs developed on “real world” credible and noncredible subjects. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 25, 60–70.10.1093/arclin/acp088
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kulas, J. F., Axelrod, B. N., & Rinaldi, A. R. (2014). Cross-validation of supplemental Test of Memory Malingering scores as performance validity measures. Psychological Injury and Law, 7, 236–244. doi:10.1007/s12207-014-9200-4
   Google Scholar
• Lange, R. T., Iverson, G. L., Brooks, B. L., & Rennison, V. L. (2010). Influence of poor effort on self-reported symptoms and neurocognitive test performance following mild traumatic brain injury. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 32(9), 961–972. doi:10.1080/13803391003645657
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lange, R. T., & Lippa, S. M. (2017). Sensitivity and specificity should never be interpreted in isolation without consideration of other clinical utility metrics. Clinical Neuropsychology, 31, 1015–1028. doi:10.1080/13854046.2017.1335438
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lange, R. T., Pancholi, S., Bhagwat, A., Anderson-Barnes, V., & French, L. M. (2012). Influence of poor effort on neuropsychological test performance in U.S. military personnel following mild traumatic brain injury. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 34(5), 453–466. doi:10.1080/13803395.2011.648175
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Larrabee, G. J. (2003). Detection of malingering using atypical performance patterns on standard neuropsychological tests. The Clinical Neuropsychologist (Neuropsychology, Development and Cognition: Section D), 17(3), 410–425. doi:10.1076/clin.17.3.410.18089
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Larrabee, G. J. (2007). Assessment of malingered neuropsychological deficits. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Larrabee, G. J. (2008). Aggregation across multiple indicators improves the detection of malingering: Relationship to likelihood ratios. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 22(4), 666–679. doi:10.1080/13854040701494987
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Larrabee, G. J. (2012a). Assessment of malingering. In G. J. Larrabee (Ed.), Forensic neuropsychology: A scientific approach (2nd ed., pp. 116–159). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Larrabee, G. J. (2012b). Forensic neuropsychology: A scientific approach (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Larrabee, G. J. (2012c). Performance validity and symptom validity in neuropsychological assessment. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 18(4), 625–631.10.1017/S1355617712000240
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Larrabee, G. J. (2014a). False-positive rates associated with the use of multiple performance and symptom validity tests. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 29(4), 364–373. doi:10.1093/arclin/acu019
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Larrabee, G. J. (2014b). Minimizing false positive error with multiple performance validity tests: Response to Bilder, Sugar, and Hellemann (2014 this issue). The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 28(8), 1230–1242. doi:10.1080/13854046.2014.988754
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Larrabee, G. J., Greiffenstein, M. F., Greve, K. W., & Bianchini, K. J. (2007). Refining diagnostic criteria for malingering. In G. J. Larrabee (Ed.), Assessment of malingered neuropsychological deficits (pp. 334–371). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Lau, L., Basso, M. R., Estevis, E., Miller, A., Whiteside, D. M., Combs, D., & Arentsen, T. J. (2017). Detecting coached neuropsychological dysfunction: A simulation experiment regarding mild traumatic brain injury. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 31(8), 1412–1431. doi:10.1080/13854046.2017.1318954
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lippa, S. M., Agbayani, K. A., Hawes, S., Jokic, E., & Caroselli, J. S. (2014). Effort in acute traumatic brain injury: Considering more than pass/fail. Rehabilitation Psychology, 59(3), 306–312. doi:10.1037/a0037217
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lippa, S. M., Lange, R. T., French, L. M., & Iverson, G. I. (2017). Performance validity, neurocognitive disorder, and post-concussion symptom reporting in Service <embers with a history of mild traumatic brain injury. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology. Advance Online Publication. doi:10.1093/arclin/acx098
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Loring, D. W., Goldstein, F. C., Chen, C., Drane, D. L., Lah, J. J., Zhao, L., & Larrabee, G. J. (2016). False-positive error rates for Reliable Digit Span and Auditory Verbal Learning Test performance validity measures in amnestic mild cognitive impairment and early Alzheimer disease. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 31(4), 313–331. doi:10.1093/arclin/acw014
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Love, C. M., Glassmire, D. M., Zanolini, S. J., & Wolf, A. (2014). Specificity and false positive rates of the Test of Memory Malingering, Rey 15-item Test, and Rey Word Recognition Test among forensic inpatients with intellectual disabilities. Assessment, 21(5), 618–627. doi:10.1177/1073191114528028
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lu, P. H., Boone, K. B., Cozolino, L., & Mitchell, C. (2003). Effectiveness of the Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure Test and the Meyers and Meyers recognition trial in the detection of suspect effort. The Clinical Neuropsychologist (Neuropsychology, Development and Cognition: Section D), 17(3), 426–440. doi:10.1076/clin.17.3.426.18083
   Google Scholar
• Macciocchi, S. N., Seel, R. T., Alderson, A., & Godsall, R. (2006). Victoria Symptom Validity Test performance in acute severe traumatic brain injury: Implications for test interpretation. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 21, 395–404.10.1016/j.acn.2006.06.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marshall, P., & Happe, M. (2007). The performance of individuals with mental retardation on cognitive tests assessing effort and motivation. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 21(5), 826–840. doi:10.1080/13854040600801001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marshall, P., Schroeder, R., O’Brien, J., Fischer, R., Ries, A., Blesi, B., & Barker, J. (2010). Effectiveness of symptom validity measures in identifying cognitive and behavioral symptom exaggeration in adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 24(7), 1204–1237. doi:10.1080/13854046.2010.514290
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin, P. K., Hunter, B. P., Rach, A. M., Heinrichs, R. J., & Schroeder, R. W. (2017). Excessive decline from premorbid functioning: Detecting performance invalidity with the WAIS-IV and demographic predictions. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 31(5), 829–843. doi:10.1080/13854046.2017.1284265
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin, P. K., Schroeder, R. W., & Odland, A. P. (2015). Neuropsychologists’ validity testing beliefs and practices: A survey of North American professionals. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 29(6), 741–776. doi:10.1080/13854046.2015.1087597
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin, P. K., Schroeder, R. W., Wyman-Chick, K. A., Hunter, B. P., Heinrichs, R. J., & Baade, L. E. (2016). Rates of abnormally low TOPF word reading scores in individuals failing versus passing performance validity testing. Assessment. Advance online publication. doi:10.1177/1073191116656796
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• McCrea, M., Pliskin, N., Barth, J., Cox, D., Fink, J., French, L., … Yoash-Gantz, R. (2008). Official position of the military TBI task force on the role of neuropsychology and rehabilitation psychology in the evaluation, management, and research of military veterans with traumatic brain injury. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 22, 10–26. doi:10.1080/13854040701760981
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Merten, T., Bossink, L., & Schmand, B. (2007). On the limits of effort testing: Symptom validity tests and severity of neurocognitive symptoms in nonlitigant patients. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 29(3), 308–318. doi:10.1080/13803390600693607
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meyers, J. E., & Diep, A. (2000). Assessment of malingering in chronic pain patients using neuropsychological tests. Applied Neuropsychology, 7(3), 133–139.10.1207/S15324826AN0703_3
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Meyers, J. E., Miller, R. M., Thompson, L. M., Scalese, A. M., Allred, B. C., Rupp, Z. W., … Junghyun Lee, A. (2014). Using likelihood ratios to detect invalid performance with performance validity measures. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 29(3), 224–235. doi:10.1093/arclin/acu001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meyers, J. E., Morrison, A. L., & Miller, J. C. (2001). How low is too low, revisited: Sentence repetition and AVLT-recognition in the detection of malingering. Applied Neuropsychology, 8(4), 234–241. doi:10.1207/S15324826AN0804_6
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Meyers, J. E., & Volbrecht, M. E. (2003). A validation of multiple malingering detection methods in a large clinical sample. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 18(3), 261–276.10.1093/arclin/18.3.261
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meyers, J. E., Volbrecht, M., Axelrod, B. N., & Reinsch-Boothby, L. (2011). Embedded symptom validity tests and overall neuropsychological test performance. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 26(1), 8–15. doi:10.1093/arclin/acq083
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller, J. B., Axelrod, B. N., Schutte, C., & Davis, J. (2017). Symptom and performance validity assessment in forensic neuropsychology. In S. S. Bush (Ed.), APA handbook of forensic neuropsychology (pp. 67–109). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.10.1037/0000032-000
   Google Scholar
• Millis, S. R. (2009). What clinicians really need to know about symptom exaggeration, insufficient effort, and malingering: Statistical and measurement matters. In J. E. Morgan & J. J. Sweet (Eds.), Neuropsychology of malingering casebook (pp. 21–38). New York, NY: Psychology Press.
   Google Scholar
• Morgan, J. E., & Sweet, J. J. (2009). Neuropsychology of malingering casebook. New York, NY: Psychology Press.
   Google Scholar
• Nelson, N. W., Sweet, J. J., Berry, D. T., Bryant, F. B., & Granacher, R. P. (2007). Response validity in forensic neuropsychology: Exploratory factor analytic evidence of distinct cognitive and psychological constructs. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 13(3), 440–449. doi:10.1017/S1355617707070373
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nitch, S., Boone, K. B., Wen, J., Arnold, G., & Alfano, K. (2006). The utility of the Rey Word Recognition Test in the detection of suspect effort. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 20(4), 873–887. doi:10.1080/13854040590967603
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Odland, A. P., Lammy, A. B., Martin, P. K., Grote, C. L., & Mittenberg, W. (2015). Advanced administration and interpretation of multiple validity tests. Psychological Injury and Law, 8, 46–63.10.1007/s12207-015-9216-4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Poreh, A., Tolfo, S., Krivenko, A., & Teaford, M. (2016). Base-rate data and norms for the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Embedded Performance Validity Indicator. Applied Neuropsychology: Adult. Advance online publication. doi:10.1080/23279095.2016.1223670
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Proto, D. A., Pastorek, N. J., Miller, B. I., Romesser, J. M., Sim, A. H., & Linck, J. F. (2014). The dangers of failing one or more performance validity tests in individuals claiming mild traumatic brain injury-related postconcussive symptoms. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 29(7), 614–624. doi:10.1093/arclin/acu044
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reedy, S. D., Boone, K. B., Cottingham, M. E., Glaser, D. F., Lu, P. H., Victor, T. L., … Wright, M. J. (2013). Cross validation of the Lu and colleagues (2003) Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure Test effort equation in a large known-group sample. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 28(1), 30–37. doi:10.1093/arclin/acs106
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Resnick, P. (1988). Malingering of posttraumatic stress disorder. In R. Rogers (Ed.), Clinical assessment of malingerin and deception (pp. 84–103). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Roberson, C. J., Boone, K. B., Goldberg, H., Miora, D., Cottingham, M., Victor, T., … Wright, M. (2013). Cross validation of the b Test in a large known groups sample. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 27(3), 495–508. doi:10.1080/13854046.2012.737027
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robles, L., Lopez, E., Salazar, X., Boone, K. B., & Glaser, D. F. (2015). Specificity data for the b Test, Dot Counting Test, Rey-15 Item Plus Recognition, and Rey Word Recognition Test in monolingual Spanish-speakers. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 37(6), 614–621. doi:10.1080/13803395.2015.1039961
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rogers, R. (2008). Clinical assessment of malingering and deception (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Rosenfeld, B., Sands, S. A., & Van Gorp, W. G. (2000). Have we forgotten the base rate problem? Methodological issues in the detection of distortion. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 15(4), 349–359.10.1093/arclin/15.4.349
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosenhan, D. L. (1973). On being sane in insane places. Science, 179(4070), 250–258.10.1126/science.179.4070.250
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ross, T. P., Poston, A. M., Rein, P. A., Salvatore, A. N., Wills, N. L., & York, T. M. (2016). Performance invalidity base rates among healthy undergraduate research participants. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 31(1), 97–104. doi:10.1093/arclin/acv062
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rudman, N., Oyebode, J. R., Jones, C. A., & Bentham, P. (2011). An investigation into the validity of effort tests in a working age dementia population. Aging & Mental Health, 15(1), 47–57. doi:10.1080/13607863.2010.508770
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ruff, R. M., Wylie, T., & Tennant, W. (1993). Malingering and malingering-like aspects of mild closed head injury. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 8, 60–73.10.1097/00001199-199309000-00008
   Google Scholar
• Ruiz, M. A., Drake, E. B., Glass, A., Marcotte, D., & van Gorp, W. G. (2002). Trying to beat the system: Misuse of the Internet to assist in avoiding the detection of psychological symptom dissimulation. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 33, 294–299.10.1037/0735-7028.33.3.294
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ruocco, A. C., Swirsky-Sacchetti, T., Chute, D. L., Mandel, S., Platek, S. M., & Zillmer, E. A. (2008). Distinguishing between neuropsychological malingering and exaggerated psychiatric symptoms in a neuropsychological setting. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 22(3), 547–564. doi:10.1080/13854040701336444
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salazar, X. F., Lu, P. H., Wen, J., & Boone, K. B. (2007). The use of effort tests in ethnic minorities and in non-English speaking and English as a second language populations. In K. B. Boone (Ed.), Assessment of feigned cognitive impairment: A neuropsychological perspective (pp. 405–427). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Santos, O. A., Kazakov, D., Reamer, M. K., Park, S. E., & Osmon, D. C. (2014). Effort in college undergraduates is sufficient on the word memory test. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 29(7), 609–613. doi:10.1093/arclin/acu039
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schroeder, R. W., & Marshall, P. S. (2011). Evaluation of the appropriateness of multiple symptom validity indices in psychotic and non-psychotic psychiatric populations. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 25(3), 437–453. doi:10.1080/13854046.2011.556668
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schroeder, R. W., Peck, C. P., Buddin, W. H., Jr, Heinrichs, R. J., & Baade, L. E. (2012). The Coin-in-the-Hand Test and dementia: More evidence for a screening test for neurocognitive symptom exaggeration. Cognitive and Behavioral Neurology, 25(3), 139–143. doi:10.1097/WNN.0b013e31826b71c1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schroeder, R. W., Twumasi-Ankrah, P., Baade, L. E., & Marshall, P. S. (2012). Reliable Digit Span: A systematic review and cross-validation study. Assessment, 19(1), 21–30. doi:10.1177/1073191111428764
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwartz, E. S., Erdodi, L., Rodriguez, N., Ghosh, J. J., Curtain, J. R., Flashman, L. A., & Roth, R. M. (2016). CVLT-II forced choice recognition trial as an embedded validity indicator: A Systematic Review of the Evidence. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 22(8), 851–858. doi:10.1017/S1355617716000746
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shandera, A. L., Berry, D. T., Clark, J. A., Schipper, L. J., Graue, L. O., & Harp, J. P. (2010). Detection of malingered mental retardation. Psychological Assessment, 22(1), 50–56. doi:10.1037/a0016585
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silk-Eglit, G. M., Lynch, J. K., & McCaffrey, R. J. (2016). Validation of victoria symptom validity test cutoff scores among mild traumatic brain injury litigants using a known-groups design. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 31(3), 231–245. doi:10.1093/arclin/acv108
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silverberg, N. D., Wertheimer, J. C., & Fichtenberg, N. L. (2007). An effort index for the repeatable battery for the assessment of neuropsychological status (RBANS). The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 21, 841–854. doi:10.1080/13854040600850958
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Slick, D. J., & Iverson, G. L. (2003). Ethical issues arising in forensic neuropsychological assessment. In I. Z. Schultz & D. O. Brady (Eds.), Psychological injuries at trial (CD) (pp. 2014–2034). Chicago, IL: American Bar Association Press.
   Google Scholar
• Slick, D. J., & Sherman, E. M. (2012). Differential diagnosis of malingering. In D. A. Carone & S. S. Bush (Eds.), Mild traumatic brain injury: Symptom validity assessment and malingering (pp. 57–72). New York, NY: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Slick, D. J., Sherman, E. M., & Iverson, G. L. (1999). Diagnostic criteria for malingered neurocognitive dysfunction: Proposed standards for clinical practice and research. The Clinical Neuropsychologist (Neuropsychology, Development and Cognition: Section D), 13(4), 545–561. doi:10.1076/1385-4046(199911)13:04;1-Y;FT545
   Google Scholar
• Slick, D. J., Tan, J. E., Strauss, E. H., & Hultsch, D. F. (2004). Detecting malingering: A survey of experts’ practices. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 19(4), 465–473. doi:10.1016/j.acn.2003.04.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smart, C. M., Nelson, N. W., Sweet, J. J., Bryant, F. B., Berry, D. T., Granacher, R. P., & Heilbronner, R. L. (2008). Use of MMPI-2 to predict cognitive effort: A hierarchically optimal classification tree analysis. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 14(5), 842–852. doi:10.1017/S1355617708081034
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, K., Boone, K., Victor, T., Miora, D., Cottingham, M., Ziegler, E., … Wright, M. (2014). Comparison of credible patients of very low intelligence and non-credible patients on neurocognitive performance validity indicators. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 28(6), 1048–1070. doi:10.1080/13854046.2014.931465
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sollman, M. J., & Berry, D. T. (2011). Detection of inadequate effort on neuropsychological testing: A meta-analytic update and extension. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 26(8), 774–789. doi:10.1093/arclin/acr066
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sollman, M. J., Ranseen, J. D., & Berry, D. T. (2010). Detection of feigned ADHD in college students. Psychological Assessment, 22(2), 325–335. doi:10.1037/a0018857
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strutt, A. M., Scott, B. M., Shrestha, S., & York, M. K. (2011). The Rey 15-item memory test and Spanish-speaking older adults. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 25(7), 1253–1265. doi:10.1080/13854046.2011.609839
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suchy, Y., Chelune, G., Franchow, E. I., & Thorgusen, S. R. (2012). Confronting patients about insufficient effort: The impact on subsequent symptom validity and memory performance. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 26(8), 1296–1311. doi:10.1080/13854046.2012.722230
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suhr, J. A. (2012, February). Strategies for addressing noncredible performance in assessment of young adults. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 18(S1), 258.
   Google Scholar
• Suhr, J. A., & Gunstad, J. (2000). The effects of coaching on the sensitivity and specificity of malingering measures. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 15(5), 415–424.10.1093/arclin/15.5.415
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suhr, J. A., & Gunstad, J. (2007). Coaching and Malingering: A review. In G. J. Larrabee (Ed.), Assessment of malingered neuropscyhological deficits (pp. 287–311). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Tombaugh, T. N. (1996). TOMM: Test of Memory Malingering. Tonawanda, NY: Multi-Health Systems.
   Google Scholar
• Van Dyke, S. A., Millis, S. R., Axelrod, B. N., & Hanks, R. A. (2013). Assessing effort: Differentiating performance and symptom validity. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 27(8), 1234–1246. doi:10.1080/13854046.2013.835447
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vickery, C. D., Berry, D. T., Dearth, C. S., Vagnini, V. L., Baser, R. E., Cragar, D. E., & Orey, S. A. (2004). Head injury and the ability to feign neuropsychological deficits. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 19(1), 37–48.10.1093/arclin/19.1.37
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Victor, T. L., & Abeles, N. (2004). Coaching clients to take psychological and neuropsychological tests: A clash of ethical obligations. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 35, 373–379.10.1037/0735-7028.35.4.373
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Victor, T. L., & Boone, K. B. (2007). Identification of feigned mental retardation. In K. B. Boone (Ed.), Assesment of feigned cognitive impairment: A neuropsychological perspective (pp. 310–345). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Victor, T. L., Boone, K. B., Serpa, J. G., Buehler, J., & Ziegler, E. A. (2009). Interpreting the meaning of multiple symptom validity test failure. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 23(2), 297–313. doi:10.1080/13854040802232682
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vilar-Lopez, R., Santiago-Ramajo, S., Gomez-Rio, M., Verdejo-Garcia, A., Llamas, J. M., & Perez-Garcia, M. (2007). Detection of malingering in a Spanish population using three specific malingering tests. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 22(3), 379–388. doi:10.1016/j.acn.2007.01.012
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walters, G. D., Berry, D. T., Rogers, R., Payne, J. W., & Granacher, R. P., Jr (2009). Feigned neurocognitive deficit: Taxon or dimension? Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 31(5), 584–593. doi:10.1080/13803390802363728
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walters, G. D., Rogers, R., Berry, D. T., Miller, H. A., Duncan, S. A., McCusker, P. J., … Granacher, R. P. (2008). Malingering as a categorical or dimensional construct: The latent structure of feigned psychopathology as measured by the SIRS and MMPI-2. Psychological Assessment, 20(3), 238–247. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.20.3.238
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• West, L. K., Curtis, K. L., Greve, K. W., & Bianchini, K. J. (2011). Memory in traumatic brain injury: The effects of injury severity and effort on the Wechsler Memory Scale-III. Journal of Neuropsychology, 5(1), 114–125. doi:10.1348/174866410X521434
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whitney, K. A., & Davis, J. J. (2015). The non-credible score of the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test: Is it better at predicting non-credible neuropsychological test performance than the RAVLT recognition score? Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 30(2), 130–138. doi:10.1093/arclin/acu094
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Youngjohn, J. R. (1995). Confirmed attorney coaching prior to neuropsychological evaluation. Assessment, 2, 279–283.10.1177/1073191195002003007
   Google Scholar
• Youngjohn, J. R., Lees-Haley, P. R., & Binder, L. M. (1999). Comment: Warning malingerers produces more sophisticated malingering. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 14(6), 511–515.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zenisek, R., Millis, S. R., Banks, S. J., & Miller, J. B. (2016). Prevalence of below-criterion Reliable Digit Span scores in a clinical sample of older adults. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 31(5), 426–433. doi:10.1093/arclin/acw025
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar