Detecting malingering in traumatic brain injury: Combining response time with performance validity test accuracy Footnote

Preliminary results of this study were presented at the 2016 the Annual Meeting of the International Neuropsychological Society, Boston, MA.

References

• Axelrod, B. N., Fichtenberg, N. L., Liethen, P. C., Czarnota, M. A., & Stucky, K. (2001). Performance characteristics of postacute traumatic brain injury patients on the WAIS-III and WMS-III. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 15(4), 516–520. doi:10.1076/clin.15.4.516.1884
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Axelrod, B. N., Fichtenberg, N. L., Liethen, P. C., Czarnota, M. A., & Stucky, K. (2002). Index, summary, and subtest discrepancy scores on the WAIS-III in postacute traumatic brain injury patients. International Journal of Neuroscience, 112(12), 1479–1487.10.1080/00207450290158377
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Babikian, T., Boone, K. B., Lu, P., & Arnold, G. (2006). Sensitivity and specificity of various digit span scores in the detection of suspect effort. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 20(1), 145–159. doi:10.1080/13854040590947362
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bianchini, K. J., Mathias, C. W., & Greve, K. W. (2001). Symptom validity testing: A critical review. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 15(1), 19–45. doi:10.1076/clin.15.1.19.1907
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bolan, B., Foster, J. K., Schmand, B., & Bolan, S. (2002). A comparison of three tests to detect feigned amnesia: The effects of feedback and the measurement of response latency. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 24(2), 154–167. doi:10.1076/jcen.24.2.154.1000
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Booksh, R. L., Aubert, M. J., & Andrews, S. R. (2007). Should the retention trial of the test of memory malingering be optional? A reply. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 22(1), 87–89. doi:10.1016/j.acn.2006.11.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boone, K. B., Lu, P., Back, C., King, C., Lee, A., Philpott, L., … Warner-Chacon, K. (2002). Sensitivity and specificity of the Rey Dot Counting Test in patients with suspect effort and various clinical samples. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 17(7), 625–642.10.1093/arclin/17.7.625
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chafetz, M. D., Williams, M. A., Ben-Porath, Y. S., Bianchini, K. J., Boone, K. B., Kirkwood, M. W., … Ord, J. S. (2015). Official position of the American academy of clinical neuropsychology social security administration policy on validity testing: Guidance and recommendations for change. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 29(6), 723–740. doi:10.1080/13854046.2015.1099738
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cicerone, K. D., Langenbahn, D. M., Braden, C., Malec, J. F., Kalmar, K., Fraas, M., … Ashman, T. (2011). Evidence-based cognitive rehabilitation: Updated review of the literature from 2003 through 2008. Archives Physical Medicine Rehabilitation, 92(4), 519–530. doi:10.1016/j.apmr.2010.11.015
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coleman, R. D., Rapport, L. J., Millis, S. R., Ricker, J. H., & Farchione, T. J. (1998). Effects of coaching on detection of malingering on the California verbal learning test. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 20(2), 201–210. doi:10.1076/jcen.20.2.201.1164
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Curtis, K. L., Thompson, L. K., Greve, K. W., & Bianchini, K. J. (2008). Verbal fluency indicators of malingering in traumatic brain injury: Classification accuracy in known groups. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 22(5), 930–945. doi:10.1080/13854040701563591
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dandachi-FitzGerald, B., Merckelbach, H., & Ponds, R. (2017). Neuropsychologists’ ability to predict distorted symptom presentation. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 39(3), 257–264. doi:10.1080/13803395.2016.1223278
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dikmen, S. S., Corrigan, J. D., Levin, H. S., Machamer, J., Stiers, W., & Weisskopf, M. G. (2009). Cognitive outcome following traumatic brain injury. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 24(6), 430–438. doi:10.1097/HTR.0b013e3181c133e9
   Google Scholar
• Erdodi, L. A., Tyson, B. T., Shahein, A. G., Lichtenstein, J. D., Abeare, C. A., Pelletier, C. L., … Roth, R. M. (2017). The power of timing: Adding a time-to-completion cutoff to the word choice test and recognition memory test improves classification accuracy. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 39(4), 369–383. doi:10.1080/13803395.2016.1230181
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Essig, S. M., Mittenberg, W., Petersen, R. S., Strauman, S., & Cooper, J. T. (2001). Practices in forensic neuropsychology: Perspectives of neuropsychologists and trial attorneys. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 16(3), 271–291.10.1093/arclin/16.3.271
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greve, K. W., & Bianchini, K. J. (2006). Should the retention trial of the test of memory malingering be optional? Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 21(1), 117–119. doi:10.1016/j.acn.2005.06.009
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greve, K. W., Bianchini, K. J., & Doane, B. M. (2006). Classification accuracy of the test of memory malingering in traumatic brain injury: Results of a known-groups analysis. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 28(7), 1176–1190. doi:10.1080/13803390500263550
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greve, K. W., Ord, J., Curtis, K. L., Bianchini, K. J., & Brennan, A. (2008). Detecting malingering in traumatic brain injury and chronic pain: A comparison of three forced-choice symptom validity tests. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 22(5), 896–918. doi:10.1080/13854040701565208
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heilbronner, R. L., Sweet, J. J., Morgan, J. E., Larrabee, G. J., Millis, S. R., & Conference Participants. (2009). American academy of clinical neuropsychology consensus conference statement on the neuropsychological assessment of effort, response bias, and malingering. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 23(7), 1093–1129. doi:10.1080/13854040903155063
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hetherington, C. R., Stuss, D. T., & Finlayson, M. A. J. (1996). Reaction time and variability 5 and 10 years after traumatic brain injury. Brain Injury, 10(7), 473–486. doi:10.1080/026990596124197
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hosmer, D. W., & Lemeshow, S. (2000). Applied logistic regression (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Wiley.10.1002/0471722146
   Google Scholar
• Iverson, G. L., Lange, R. T., Green, P., & Franzen, M. D. (2002). Detecting exaggeration and malingering with the trail making test. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 16(3), 398–406. doi:10.1076/clin.16.3.398.13861
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones, A. (2013). Test of memory malingering: Cutoff scores for psychometrically defined malingering groups in a military sample. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 27(6), 1043–1059. doi:10.1080/13854046.2013.804949
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kanser, R. J., Rapport, L. J., Bashem, J. R., Billings, N. M., Hanks, R. A., Axelrod, B. N., & Miller, J. B. (2017). Strategies of successful and unsuccessful simulators coached to feign traumatic brain injury. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 31(3), 644–653. doi:10.1080/13854046.2016.1278040
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim, M. S., Boone, K. B., Victor, T., Marion, S. D., Amano, S., Cottingham, M. E., … Zeller, M. A. (2010). The Warrington recognition memory test for words as a measure of response bias: Total score and response time cutoffs developed on ‘real world’ credible and noncredible subjects. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 25(1), 60–70. doi:10.1093/arclin/acp088
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kireev, M., Korotkov, A., Medvedeva, N., & Medvedev, S. (2013). Possible role of an error detection mechanism in brain processing of deception: PET-fMRI study. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 90(3), 291–299. doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2013.09.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin, P. K., Schroeder, R. W., & Odland, A. P. (2015). Neuropsychologists’ validity testing beliefs and practices: A survey of North American professionals. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 29(6), 741–776. doi:10.1080/13854046.2015.1087597
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pearson. (2009). Wechsler memory scale, fourth edition: Clinical features of the (new ed.). New York, NY: Pearson Education.
   Google Scholar
• Powell, M. R., Gfeller, J. D., Hendricks, B. L., & Sharland, M. (2004). Detecting symptom- and test-coached simulators with the test of memory malingering. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 19(5), 693–702. doi:10.1016/j.acn.2004.04.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rapport, L. J., Farchione, T. J., Coleman, R. D., & Axelrod, B. N. (1998). Effects of coaching on malingered motor function profiles. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 20(1), 89–97. doi:10.1076/jcen.20.1.89.1488
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rees, L. M., Tombaugh, T. N., Gansler, D. A., & Moczynski, N. P. (1998). Five validation experiments of the Test of Memory Malingering (TOMM). Psychological Assessment, 10(1), 10–20. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.10.1.10
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reicker, L. I. (2008). The ability of reaction time tests to detect simulation: An investigation of contextual effects and criterion scores. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 23(4), 419–431. doi:10.1016/j.acn.2008.02.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rogers, R. (1997). Researching dissimulation. In R. Rogers (Ed.), Clinical assessment of malingering and deception (2nd ed., pp. 398–426). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Rose, F. E., Hall, S., & Szalda-petree, A. D. (1995). Portland digit recognition test-computerized: Measuring response latency improves the detection of malingering. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 9(2), 124–134. doi:10.1080/13854049508401594
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rose, F. E., Hall, S., Szalda-Petree, A. D., & Bach, P. J. (1998). A comparison of four tests of malingering and the effects of coaching. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 13(4), 349–363.10.1093/arclin/13.4.349
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schroeder, R. W., Buddin, W. H., Hargrave, D. D., VonDran, E. J., Campbell, E. B., Brockman, C. J., … Baade, L. E. (2013). Efficacy of test of memory malingering trial 1, trial 2, the retention trial, and the Albany consistency index in a criterion group forensic neuropsychological sample. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 28(1), 21–29. doi:10.1093/arclin/acs094
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schroeder, R. W., Martin, P. K., & Odland, A. P. (2016). Expert beliefs and practices regarding neuropsychological validity testing. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 30(4), 515–535. doi:10.1080/13854046.2016.1177118
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sharland, M. J., & Gfeller, J. D. (2007). A survey of neuropsychologists’ beliefs and practices with respect to the assessment of effort. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 22(2), 213–223. doi:10.1016/j.acn.2006.12.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Slick, D. J., Tan, J. E., Strauss, E. H., & Hultsch, D. F. (2004). Detecting malingering: A survey of experts’ practices. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 19(4), 465–473. doi:10.1016/j.acn.2003.04.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sollman, M. J., & Berry, D. T. (2011). Detection of inadequate effort on neuropsychological testing: A meta-analytic update and extension. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 26(8), 774–789. doi:10.1093/arclin/acr066
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stuss, D. T., Stethem, L. L., Picton, T. W., Leech, E. E., & Pelchat, G. (1989). Traumatic brain injury, aging and reaction time. The Canadian Journal of Neurological Sciences, 16(2), 161–167.10.1017/S0317167100028833
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suhr, J. A., & Boyer, D. (1999). Use of the Wisconsin card sorting test in the detection of malingering in student simulator and patient samples. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 21(5), 701–708. doi:10.1076/jcen.21.5.701.868
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suhr, J. A., & Gunstad, J. (2007). Coaching and malingering: A review. In G. J. Larrabee (Ed.), Assessment of malingered neurocognitive deficits (pp. 287–311). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Sun, D. L., Lee, T. M. C., & Chan, C. C. H. (2015). Unfolding the spatial and temporal neural processing of lying about face familiarity. Cerebral Cortex, 25(4), 927–936. doi:10.1093/cercor/bht284
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sweet, J. J., Benson, L. M., Nelson, N. W., & Moberg, P. J. (2015). The American Academy of Clinical Neuropsychology, National Academy of Neuropsychology, and Society for Clinical Neuropsychology (APA Division 40) 2015 TCN professional practice and ‘salary survey’: Professional practices, beliefs, and incomes of U.S. neuropsychologists. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 29(8), 1069–1162. doi:10.1080/13854046.2016.1140228
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2012). Using multivariate statistics (6th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon/Pearson Education.
   Google Scholar
• Tan, J. E., Slick, D. J., Strauss, E., & Hultsch, D. F. (2002). How’d they do it? Malingering strategies on symptom validity tests. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 16(4), 495–505. doi:10.1076/clin.16.4.495.13909
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tombaugh, T. N. (1996). Test of memory malingering. North Tonawanda, NY: Multi-Health Systems.
   Google Scholar
• Tombaugh, T. N. (1997). The test of memory malingering (TOMM): Normative data from cognitively intact and cognitively impaired individuals. Psychological Assessment, 9(3), 260–268.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tombaugh, T. N., & Rees, L. M. (2000). Manual for the computerized tests of information processing (CTIP). Ottawa, ON: Carleton University.
   Google Scholar
• Vagnini, V. L., Berry, D. T., Clark, J. A., & Jiang, Y. (2008). New measures to detect malingered neurocognitive deficit: Applying reaction time and event-related potentials. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 30(7), 766–776. doi:10.1080/13803390701754746
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vanderslice-Barr, J. L., Miele, A. S., Jardin, B., & McCaffrey, R. J. (2011). Comparison of computerized versus booklet versions of the TOMM. Applied Neuropsychology-Adult, 18(1), 34–36. doi:10.1080/09084282.2010.523377
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Hooff, J. C., Sargeant, E., Foster, J. K., & Schmand, B. A. (2009). Identifying deliberate attempts to fake memory impairment through the combined use of reaction time and event-related potential measures. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 73(3), 246–256. doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2009.04.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Warrington, E. K. (1984). Recognition memory test. Lutz, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
   Google Scholar
• Whiteside, D. M., Kogan, J., Wardin, L., Phillips, D., Franzwa, M. G., Rice, L., … Roper, B. (2015). Language-based embedded performance validity measures in traumatic brain injury. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 37(2), 220–227. doi:10.1080/13803395.2014.1002758
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Willison, J., & Tombaugh, T. N. (2006). Detecting simulation of attention deficits using reaction time tests. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 21(1), 41–52. doi:10.1016/j.acn.2005.07.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolfe, P. L., Millis, S. R., Hanks, R., Fichtenberg, N., Larrabee, G. J., & Sweet, J. J. (2010). Effort indicators within the California verbal learning test-II (CVLT-II). The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 24(1), 153–168. doi:10.1080/13854040903107791
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woods, D. L., Wyma, J. M., Yund, E. W., & Herron, T. J. (2015). The effects of repeated testing, simulated malingering, and traumatic brain injury on visual choice reaction time. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 9, 595. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2015.00595
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar