1,724
Views
1
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
REVIEW ARTICLE

Neuropsychological evaluation of functional cognitive disorder: A narrative review

&
Pages 302-325 | Received 27 Jan 2023, Accepted 17 Jun 2023, Published online: 27 Jun 2023

References

  • Alluri, P. R., Solit, J., Leveroni, C. L., Goldberg, K., Vehar, J. V., Pollak, L. E., Colvin, M. K., & Perez, D. L. (2020). Cognitive complaints in motor functional neurological (conversion) disorders: A focused review and clinical perspective. Cognitive and Behavioral Neurology: Official Journal of the Society for Behavioral and Cognitive Neurology, 33(2), 77–89. https://doi.org/10.1097/WNN.0000000000000218
  • American Academy of Clinical Neuropsychology. (2007). American Academy of Clinical Neuropsychology (AACN) practice guidelines for neuropsychological assessment and consultation. Clin Neuropsychol, 21(2), 209–231. https://doi.org/10.1080/13825580601025932
  • American Psychiatric Association. (2022). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, text revision (DSM-5-TR. American Psychiatric Association Publishing.
  • Bagaric, B., Jokic-Begic, N., & Sangster Jokic, C. (2022). The nocebo effect: A review of contemporary experimental research. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 29(3), 255–265. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12529-021-10016-y
  • Bailey, C., Poole, N., & Blackburn, D. J. (2018). Identifying patterns of communication in patients attending memory clinics: A systematic review of observations and signs with potential diagnostic utility. British Journal of General Practice, 68(667), e123–e138. https://doi.org/10.3399/bjgp18X694601
  • Ball, H. A., McWhirter, L., Ballard, C., Bhome, R., Blackburn, D. J., Edwards, M. J., Fleming, S. M., Fox, N. C., Howard, R., Huntley, J., Isaacs, J. D., Larner, A. J., Nicholson, T. R., Pennington, C. M., Poole, N., Price, G., Price, J. P., Reuber, M., Ritchie, C., … Carson, A. J. (2020). Functional cognitive disorder: Dementia’s blind spot. Brain, 143(10), 2895–2903. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awaa224
  • Ball, H. A., Swirski, M., Newson, M., Coulthard, E. J., & Pennington, C. M. (2021). Differentiating functional cognitive disorder from early neurodegeneration: A clinic-based study. Brain Sci, 11(6), 800. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11060800
  • Barhon, L. I., Batchelor, J., Meares, S., Chekaluk, E., & Shores, E. A. (2015). A comparison of the degree of effort involved in the TOMM and the ACS Word Choice Test using a dual-task paradigm. Applied Neuropsychology: Adult, 22(2), 114–123. https://doi.org/10.1080/23279095.2013.863775
  • Barnett, C., Davis, R., Mitchell, C., & Tyson, S. (2022). The vicious cycle of functional neurological disorders: A synthesis of healthcare professionals’ views on working with patients with functional neurological disorder. Disability and Rehabilitation, 44(10), 1802–1811. https://doi.org/10.1080/09638288.2020.1822935
  • Bennett, K., Diamond, C., Hoeritzauer, I., Gardiner, P., McWhirter, L., Carson, A., & Stone, J. (2021). A practical review of functional neurological disorder (FND) for the general physician. Clinical Medicine, 21(1), 28–36. https://doi.org/10.7861/clinmed.2020-0987
  • Bhome, R., Huntley, J. D., Price, G., & Howard, R. J. (2019). Clinical presentation and neuropsychological profiles of Functional Cognitive Disorder patients with and without co-morbid depression. Cognitive Neuropsychiatry, 24(2), 152–164. https://doi.org/10.1080/13546805.2019.1590190
  • Bhome, R., McWilliams, A., Huntley, J. D., Fleming, S. M., & Howard, R. J. (2019). Metacognition in functional cognitive disorder- a potential mechanism and treatment target. Cognitive Neuropsychiatry, 24(5), 311–321. https://doi.org/10.1080/13546805.2019.1651708
  • Bhome, R., McWilliams, A., Price, G., Poole, N. A., Howard, R. J., Fleming, S. M., & Huntley, J. D. (2022). Metacognition in functional cognitive disorder. Brain Communications, 4(2) fcac041. https://doi.org/10.1093/braincomms/fcac041
  • Boone, K. B. (2009). Fixed belief in cognitive dysfunction despite normal neuropsychological scores: Neurocognitive hypochondriasis? The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 23(6), 1016–1036. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854040802441135
  • Boone, K. B. (2017). Self-deception in somatoform conditions. In K. B. Boone (Ed.), Neuropsychological evaluation of somatoform and other functional somatic conditions (pp. 3–43). Routledge.
  • Bush, S. S., Ruff, R. M., Troster, A. I., Barth, J. T., Koffler, S. P., Pliskin, N. H., Reynolds, C. R., & Silver, C. H. (2005). Symptom validity assessment: Practice issues and medical necessity NAN policy & planning committee. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology: The Official Journal of the National Academy of Neuropsychologists, 20(4), 419–426. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acn.2005.02.002
  • Caughie, C., Bean, P., Tiede, P., Cobb, J., McFarland, C., & Hall, S. (2021). Dementia worry and neuropsychological performance in healthy older adults. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 36(1), 29–36. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acaa057
  • Cook, D. B., O’Connor, P. J., Lange, G., & Steffener, J. (2007). Functional neuroimaging correlates of mental fatigue induced by cognition among chronic fatigue syndrome patients and controls. NeuroImage, 36(1), 108–122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2007.02.033
  • Cuoco, S., Scannapieco, S., Carotenuto, I., Picillo, M., Pellecchia, M. T., Barone, P., & Erro, R. (2023). Higher Health Service Costs Associated With Delayed Diagnosis of Functional Neurological Disorder. The Journal of neuropsychiatry and clinical neurosciences, 35(1), 86–91. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.neuropsych.21110288
  • D’Amico, D., Amestoy, M. E., & Fiocco, A. J. (2020). The association between allostatic load and cognitive function: A systematic and meta-analytic review. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 121, 104849. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2020.104849
  • D’Amico, D., Amestoy, M. E., & Fiocco, A. J. (2022). The mediating role of allostatic load in the relationship between early life adversity and cognitive function across the adult lifespan. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 141, 105761. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2022.105761
  • Dean, A. C., Victor, T. L., Boone, K. B., Philpott, L. M., & Hess, R. A. (2009). Dementia and effort test performance. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 23(1), 133–152. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854040701819050
  • Delis, D. C., & Wetter, S. R. (2007). Cogniform disorder and cogniform condition: Proposed diagnoses for excessive cognitive symptoms. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 22(5), 589–604. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acn.2007.04.001
  • Drane, D. L., & Locke, D. E. C. (2017). Mechanisms of possible neurocognitive dysfunctio. In B. A. Dworetzky & G. Baslet (Eds.), Psychogenic nonepileptic seizures: Toward the integration of care. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190265045.001.0001
  • Edwards, M. J., Adams, R. A., Brown, H., Parees, I., & Friston, K. J. (2012). A Bayesian account of ‘hysteria. Brain, 135(11), 3495–3512. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/aws129
  • Elsey, C., Drew, P., Jones, D., Blackburn, D., Wakefield, S., Harkness, K., Venneri, A., & Reuber, M. (2015). Towards diagnostic conversational profiles of patients presenting with dementia or functional memory disorders to memory clinics. Patient Education and Counseling, 98(9), 1071–1077. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pec.2015.05.021
  • Espay, A. J., Aybek, S., Carson, A., Edwards, M. J., Goldstein, L. H., Hallett, M., LaFaver, K., LaFrance, W. C., Jr., Lang, A. E., Nicholson, T., Nielsen, G., Reuber, M., Voon, V., Stone, J., & Morgante, F. (2018). Current concepts in diagnosis and treatment of functional neurological disorders. JAMA Neurology, 75(9), 1132–1141. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaneurol.2018.1264
  • Etherton, J. L., Bianchini, K. J., Greve, K. W., & Ciota, M. A. (2005). Test of Memory Malingering Performance is unaffected by laboratory-induced pain: Implications for clinical use. Arch Clin Neuropsychol, 20(3), 375–384. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acn.2004.09.007
  • Farina, F. R., Bennett, M., Griffith, J. W., & Lenaert, B. (2022). Fear of memory loss predicts increased memory failures and lower quality of life in older adults: Preliminary findings from a fear-avoidance of memory loss (FAM) scale. Aging & Mental Health, 26(3), 486–492. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2020.1856780
  • Flaro, L., Green, P., Flaro, L., Green, P., & Robertson, E. (2007). Word Memory Test failure 23 times higher in mild brain injury than in parents seeking custody: The power of external incentives. Brain Injury, 21(4), 373–383. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699050701311133
  • Fobian, A. D., & Elliott, L. (2019). A review of functional neurological symptom disorder etiology and the integrated etiological summary model. Journal of Psychiatry & Neuroscience, 44(1), 8–18. https://doi.org/10.1503/jpn.170190
  • Frederick, R. I., & Bowden, S. C. (2009). Evaluating constructs represented by symptom validity tests in forensic neuropsychological assessment of traumatic brain injury. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 24(2), 105–122. https://doi.org/10.1097/HTR.0b013e31819b1210
  • Gil-Gouveia, R., & Martins, I. P. (2019). Cognition and cognitive impairment in migraine. Current Pain and Headache Reports, 23(11), 84. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11916-019-0824-7
  • Graham, C. D., & Kyle, S. D. (2017). A preliminary investigation of sleep quality in functional neurological disorders: Poor sleep appears common, and is associated with functional impairment. Journal of the Neurological Sciences. 378, 163–166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jns.2017.05.021
  • Graver, C., & Green, P. (2022). Misleading conclusions about word memory test results in multiple sclerosis (MS) by Loring and Goldstein (2019). Applied Neuropsychology: Adult, 29(3), 315–323. https://doi.org/10.1080/23279095.2020.1748035
  • Griem, J., Stone, J., Carson, A., & Kopelman, M. D. (2016). Psychologic/functional forms of memory disorder. Handb Clin Neurol, 139, 407–417. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-801772-2.00035-7
  • Guidi, J., Lucente, M., Sonino, N., & Fava, G. A. (2021). Allostatic load and its impact on health: A systematic review. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 90(1), 11–27. https://doi.org/10.1159/000510696
  • Hallett, M., Aybek, S., Dworetzky, B. A., McWhirter, L., Staab, J. P., & Stone, J. (2022). Functional neurological disorder: New subtypes and shared mechanisms. The Lancet Neurology, 21(6), 537–550. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1474-4422(21)00422-1
  • Howe, L. L., & Loring, D. W. (2009). Classification accuracy and predictive ability of the medical symptom validity test’s dementia profile and general memory impairment profile. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 23(2), 329–342. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854040801945060
  • Hromas, G. A., Houck, Z. M., Asken, B. M., Svingos, A. M., Greif, S. M., Heaton, S. C., Jaffee, M. S., & Bauer, R. M. (2021). Making a difference: Affective distress explains discrepancy between objective and subjective cognitive functioning after mild traumatic brain injury. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 36(3), 186–195. https://doi.org/10.1097/HTR.0000000000000618
  • Iverson, G. L., Lange, R. T., Brooks, B. L., & Rennison, V. L. (2010). Good old days" bias following mild traumatic brain injury. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 24(1), 17–37. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854040903190797
  • Jang, Y., Haley, W. E., Choi, E. Y., & Franco, Y. (2022). Racial/ethnic differences in correspondence between subjective cognitive ratings and cognitive impairment. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 30(5), 627–635. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jagp.2021.10.015
  • Jansma, J. M., Ramsey, N. F., Slagter, H. A., & Kahn, R. S. (2001). Functional anatomical correlates of controlled and automatic processing. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 13(6), 730–743. https://doi.org/10.1162/08989290152541403
  • Jessen, F., Amariglio, R. E., Buckley, R. F., van der Flier, W. M., Han, Y., Molinuevo, J. L., Rabin, L., Rentz, D. M., Rodriguez-Gomez, O., Saykin, A. J., Sikkes, S. A. M., Smart, C. M., Wolfsgruber, S., & Wagner, M. (2020). The characterisation of subjective cognitive decline. Lancet Neurol, 19(3), 271–278. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1474-4422(19)30368-0
  • Jungilligens, J., Paredes-Echeverri, S., Popkirov, S., Barrett, L. F., & Perez, D. L. (2022). A new science of emotion: Implications for functional neurological disorder. Brain, 145(8), 2648–2663. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awac204
  • Kapur, N., Kemp, S., & Baker, G. (2021). Functional cognitive disorder: Dementia’s blind spot. Brain, 144(4), e37–e37. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awab008
  • Kemp, S., Coughlan, A. K., Rowbottom, C., Wilkinson, K., Teggart, V., & Baker, G. (2008). The base rate of effort test failure in patients with medically unexplained symptoms. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 65(4), 319–325. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2008.02.010
  • Kemp, S., Kapur, N., Graham, C. D., & Reuber, M. (2022). Functional cognitive disorder: Differential diagnosis of common clinical presentations. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 37(6), 1158–1176. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acac020
  • Keynejad, R. C., Frodl, T., Kanaan, R., Pariante, C., Reuber, M., & Nicholson, T. R. (2019). Stress and functional neurological disorders: Mechanistic insights. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 90(7), 813–821. https://doi.org/10.1136/jnnp-2018-318297
  • Kozlowska, K., Sawchuk, T., Waugh, J. L., Helgeland, H., Baker, J., Scher, S., & Fobian, A. D. (2021). Changing the culture of care for children and adolescents with functional neurological disorder. Epilepsy Behavior Reports, 16, 100486. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ebr.2021.100486
  • Kutlubaev, M. A., Xu, Y., Hackett, M. L., & Stone, J. (2018). Dual diagnosis of epilepsy and psychogenic nonepileptic seizures: Systematic review and meta-analysis of frequency, correlates, and outcomes. Epilepsy & Behavior: E&B, 89, 70–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2018.10.010
  • Larner, A. J. (2021). Functional Cognitive Disorders (FCD): How is metacognition involved? Brain Sci, 11(8), 1082. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11081082
  • Larrabee, G. J., Boone, K. B., Bianchini, K. J., Rohling, M. L., & Sherman, E. M. S. (2020). Letter to the Editor: Response to McWhirter et al (2020). Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry.
  • Lee, G. J., Suhr, J., Henry, G. K., Heilbronner, R. L., & Drane, D. L. (2021). The relationship of cogniphobia to performance validity and symptom validity in neuropsychological assessment. Neuropsychology, 35(7), 762–769. https://doi.org/10.1037/neu0000765
  • Loring, D. W., Marino, S. E., Drane, D. L., Parfitt, D., Finney, G. R., & Meador, K. J. (2011). Lorazepam effects on Word Memory Test performance: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover trial. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 25(5), 799–811. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2011.583279
  • MacDuffie, K., Grubbs, L., Best, T., LaRoche, S., Mildon, B., Myers, L. … Rommelfanger, K. (2021). Stigma and functional neurological disorder: A research agenda targeting the clinical encounter. CNS Spectrums, 26(6), 587-592. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1092852920002084.
  • Marcotte, T. D., Schmitter-Edgecombe, M., Scott, J. C., Kamat, R., & Heaton, R. K. (2022). Neuropsychology and the prediction of everyday functioning. In T. D. Marcotte, M. Schmitter-Edgecombe, & I. Grant (Eds.), Neuropsychology of everyday functioning (Second ed., pp. 5–38). Guilford.
  • McWhirter, L., King, L., McClure, E., Ritchie, C., Stone, J., & Carson, A. (2022). The frequency and framing of cognitive lapses in healthy adults. CNS Spectrums, 27(3), 331–338. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1092852920002096
  • McWhirter, L., Ritchie, C., Stone, J., & Carson, A. (2020a). Functional cognitive disorders: A systematic review. The Lancet Psychiatry, 7(2), 191–207. https://doi.org/10.1016/s2215-0366(19)30405-5
  • McWhirter, L., Ritchie, C. W., Stone, J., & Carson, A. (2020b). Performance validity test failure in clinical populations-a systematic review. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 91(9), 945–952. https://doi.org/10.1136/jnnp-2020-323776
  • McWhirter, L., Ritchie, C., Stone, J., & Carson, A. (2021). Identifying functional cognitive disorder: A proposed diagnostic risk model. CNS Spectrums, 27(6), 754–763. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1092852921000845
  • McWhirter, L., Smyth, H., Hoeritzauer, I., Couturier, A., Stone, J., & Carson, A. J. (2023). What is brain fog? Journal of Neurology. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 94(4), 321–325.
  • Mendonça, M. D., Alves, L., & Bugalho, P. (2016). From Subjective Cognitive Complaints to Dementia: Who is at Risk?: A Systematic Review. American Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease & Other Dementiasr, 31(2), 105–114. https://doi.org/10.1177/1533317515592331
  • Merten, T., & Merckelbach, H. (2013). Symptom Validity Testing in Somatoform and Dissociative Disorders: A Critical Review. Psychological Injury and Law, 6(2), 122–137. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12207-013-9155-x
  • Metternich, B., Schmidtke, K., Dykierek, P., & Hüll, M. (2008). A pilot group therapy for functional memory disorder. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 77(4), 259–260. https://doi.org/10.1159/000128166
  • Metternich, B., Schmidtke, K., & Hull, M. (2009). How are memory complaints in functional memory disorder related to measures of affect, metamemory and cognition? Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 66(5), 435–444. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2008.07.005
  • Mittenberg, W., DiGiulio, D. V., Perrin, S., & Bass, A. E. (1992). Symptoms following mild head injury: Expectation as aetiology. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 55(3), 200–204. https://doi.org/10.1136/jnnp.55.3.200
  • Mollica, A., Dey, A., Cairncross, M., Silverberg, N., & Burke, M. J. (2022). Neuropsychiatric treatment for mild traumatic brain injury: Nonpharmacological approaches. Semin Neurol, 42(2), 168–181. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0041-1742143
  • Myers, L., Perrine, K., Lancman, M., Fleming, M., & Lancman, M. (2013). Psychological trauma in patients with psychogenic nonepileptic seizures: Trauma characteristics and those who develop PTSD. Epilepsy & Behavior, 28(1), 121–126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2013.03.033
  • Numbers, K., Crawford, J. D., Kochan, N. A., Draper, B., Sachdev, P. S., & Brodaty, H. (2020). Participant and informant memory-specific cognitive complaints predict future decline and incident dementia: Findings from the Sydney Memory and Ageing Study. PLoS One, 15(5), e0232961. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0232961
  • Oriuwa, C., Mollica, A., Feinstein, A., Giacobbe, P., Lipsman, N., Perez, D. L., & Burke, M. J. (2022). Neuromodulation for the treatment of functional neurological disorder and somatic symptom disorder: A systematic review. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 93(3), 280–290. https://doi.org/10.1136/jnnp-2021-327025
  • Paredes-Echeverri, S., Guthrie, A. J., & Perez, D. L. (2022). Toward a possible trauma subtype of functional neurological disorder: Impact on symptom severity and physical health. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 13, 1040911. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.1040911
  • Pennington, C., Ball, H., & Swirski, M. (2019). Functional Cognitive Disorder: Diagnostic challenges and future directions. Diagnostics (Basel), 9(4) https://doi.org/10.3390/diagnostics9040131
  • Pennington, C., Ball, H., Swirski, M., Newson, M., & Coulthard, E. (2021). Metacognitive performance on memory and visuospatial tasks in Functional Cognitive Disorder. Brain Sci, 11(10), 1368. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11101368
  • Pennington, C., Newson, M., Hayre, A., & Coulthard, E. (2015). Functional cognitive disorder: What is it and what to do about it? Practical Neurology, 15(6), 436–444. https://doi.org/10.1136/practneurol-2015-001127
  • Perez, D. L., Edwards, M. J., Nielsen, G., Kozlowska, K., Hallett, M., & LaFrance, W. C.Jr (2021). Decade of progress in motor functional neurological disorder: Continuing the momentum. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 92(6), 668–677. https://doi.org/10.1136/jnnp-2020-323953
  • Phillips, W. (2021). Functional neurological disorders in personal injury. BMJ Neurology Open, 3(1), e000100. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjno-2020-000100
  • Picon, E. L., Perez, D. L., Burke, M. J., Debert, C. T., Iverson, G. L., Panenka, W. J., & Silverberg, N. D. (2021). Unexpected symptoms after concussion: Potential links to functional neurological and somatic symptom disorders. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 151, 110661. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2021.110661
  • Picon, E. L., Todorova, E. V., Palombo, D. J., Perez, D. L., Howard, A. K., & Silverberg, N. D. (2022). Memory perfectionism is associated with persistent memory complaints after concussion. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 37(6), 1177–1184. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acac021
  • Potter, S., & Brown, R. G. (2012). Cognitive behavioural therapy and persistent post-concussional symptoms: Integrating conceptual issues and practical aspects in treatment. Neuropsychological Rehabilitation, 22(1), 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1080/09602011.2011.630883
  • Price, C. J., & Hooven, C. (2018). Interoceptive awareness skills for emotion regulation: Theory and approach of mindful awareness in body-oriented therapy (MABT). Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 798. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00798
  • Rabinowitz, A. R., Merritt, V. C., & Arnett, P. A. (2015). The return-to-play incentive and the effect of motivation on neuropsychological test-performance: Implications for baseline concussion testing. Developmental Neuropsychology, 40(1), 29–33. https://doi.org/10.1080/87565641.2014.1001066
  • Raghunath, S., Guymer, E. K., Glikmann-Johnston, Y., Golder, V., Kandane Rathnayake, R., Morand, E. F., Stout, J. C., & Hoi, A. (2022). Fibromyalgia, mood disorders, cognitive test results, cognitive symptoms and quality of life in systemic lupus erythematosus. Rheumatology (Oxford, England), 62(1), 190–199. https://doi.org/10.1093/rheumatology/keac207
  • Randall, A., & Larner, A. J. (2018). La maladie du petit papier: A sign of functional cognitive disorder? International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 33(5), 800–800. https://doi.org/10.1002/gps.4854
  • Reuber, M., Blackburn, D. J., Elsey, C., Wakefield, S., Ardern, K. A., Harkness, K., Venneri, A., Jones, D., Shaw, C., & Drew, P. (2018). An interactional profile to assist the differential diagnosis of neurodegenerative and functional memory disorders. Alzheimer Disease & Associated Disorders, 32(3), 197–206. https://doi.org/10.1097/WAD.0000000000000231
  • Rioux, M., Wardell, V., Palombo, D. J., Picon, E. L., Le, M. L., & Silverberg, N. D. (2022). Memory for forgetting in adults with persistent symptoms following concussion. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 44(1), 19–30. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2022.2067326
  • Rommelfanger, K. S., Factor, S. A., LaRoche, S., Rosen, P., Young, R., & Rapaport, M. H. (2017). Disentangling stigma from functional neurological disorders: Conference report and roadmap for the future. Frontiers in Neurology, 8, 106. https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2017.00106
  • Russell, L., Abbass, A., & Allder, S. (2022). A review of the treatment of functional neurological disorder with intensive short-term dynamic psychotherapy. Epilepsy & Behavior: E&B, 130, 108657. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2022.108657
  • Schmidtke, K. (1995). Functional memory disorders. A study of 25 patients. Der Nervenarzt, 66(5), 338–346. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7609814 (Funktionelle Gedachtnisstorungen. Eine Untersuchung an 25 Patienten.)
  • Schmidtke, K., & Metternich, B. (2009). Validation of two inventories for the diagnosis and monitoring of functional memory disorder. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 67(3), 245–251. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2009.04.005
  • Schmidtke, K., Pohlmann, S., & Metternich, B. (2008). The syndrome of functional memory disorder: Definition, etiology, and natural course. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry: official Journal of the American Association for Geriatric Psychiatry, 16(12), 981–988. https://doi.org/10.1097/JGP.0b013e318187ddf9
  • Schwilk, N., Kloppel, S., Schmidtke, K., & Metternich, B. (2021). Functional cognitive disorder in subjective cognitive decline-A 10-year follow-up. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 36(5), 677–683. https://doi.org/10.1002/gps.5466
  • Sherman, E. M. S., Slick, D. J., & Iverson, G. L. (2020). Multidimensional malingering criteria for neuropsychological assessment: A 20-year update of the malingered neuropsychological dysfunction criteria. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology: The Official Journal of the National Academy of Neuropsychologists, 35(6), 735–764. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acaa019
  • Shura, R. D., Taber, K. H., Armistead-Jehle, P., Denning, J. H., & Rowland, J. A. (2019). Effects of distraction on performance validity: A pilot study with veterans. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology: The Official Journal of the National Academy of Neuropsychologists, 34(8), 1432–1437. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acz014
  • Silverberg, N. D., Bedi, S., & Picon, E. (2022). Metacognitive training for functional memory symptoms after concussion. Functional Neurological Disorders Society.
  • Silverberg, N. D., Iverson, G. L., Brubacher, J. R., Holland, E., Hoshino, L. C., Aquino, A., & Lange, R. T. (2016). The nature and clinical significance of preinjury recall bias following mild traumatic brain injury. The Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 31(6), 388–396. https://doi.org/10.1097/HTR.0000000000000198
  • Silverberg, N. D., Iverson, G. L., & Panenka, W. (2017). Cogniphobia in mild traumatic brain injury. Journal of Neurotrauma, 34(13), 2141–2146. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2016.4719
  • Stone, J., Carson, A., Aditya, H., Prescott, R., Zaubi, M., Warlow, C., & Sharpe, M. (2009). The role of physical injury in motor and sensory conversion symptoms: A systematic and narrative review. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 66(5), 383–390. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2008.07.010
  • Stone, J., Carson, A., & Hallett, M. (2016). Explanation as treatment for functional neurologic disorders. Handb Clin Neurol, 139, 543–553. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-801772-2.00044-8
  • Stone, J., & Hoeritzauer, I. (2019). How do i explain the diagnosis of functional movement disorder to a patient? Movement Disorders Clinical Practice, 6(5), 419. https://doi.org/10.1002/mdc3.12785
  • Stone, J., Pal, S., Blackburn, D., Reuber, M., Thekkumpurath, P., & Carson, A. (2015). Functional (psychogenic) cognitive disorders: A perspective from the neurology clinic. Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease: JAD, 48 Suppl 1(Suppl 1), S5–S17. https://doi.org/10.3233/JAD-150430
  • Sweet, J. J., Heilbronner, R. L., Morgan, J. E., Larrabee, G. J., Rohling, M. L., Boone, K. B., Kirkwood, M. W., Schroeder, R. W., & Suhr, J. A. (2021). American Academy of Clinical Neuropsychology (AACN) 2021 consensus statement on validity assessment: Update of the 2009 AACN consensus conference statement on neuropsychological assessment of effort, response bias, and malingering. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 35(6), 1053–1106. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2021.1896036
  • Teodoro, T., Chen, J., Gelauff, J., & Edwards, M. J. (2023). Functional neurological disorder in people with long COVID: A systematic review. European Journal of Neurology, 30(5), 1505–1514. https://doi.org/10.1111/ene.15721
  • Teodoro, T., Edwards, M. J., & Isaacs, J. D. (2018). A unifying theory for cognitive abnormalities in functional neurological disorders, fibromyalgia and chronic fatigue syndrome: Systematic review. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 89(12), 1308–1319. https://doi.org/10.1136/jnnp-2017-317823
  • Troyer, A. K., Leach, L., Vandermorris, S., & Rich, J. B. (2019). The measurement of participant-reported memory across diverse populations and settings: A systematic review and meta-analysis of the Multifactorial Memory Questionnaire. Memory (Hove, England), 27(7), 931–942. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658211.2019.1608255
  • Varley, D., Sweetman, J., Brabyn, S., Lagos, D., & van der Feltz-Cornelis, C. (2023). The clinical management of functional neurological disorder: A scoping review of the literature. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 165, 111121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2022.111121
  • Wakefield, S. J., Blackburn, D. J., Harkness, K., Khan, A., Reuber, M., & Venneri, A. (2018). Distinctive neuropsychological profiles differentiate patients with functional memory disorder from patients with amnestic-mild cognitive impairment. Acta Neuropsychiatrica, 30(2), 90–96. https://doi.org/10.1017/neu.2017.21
  • Webster, K. E., Kamo, T., Smith, L., Harrington-Benton, N. A., Judd, O., Kaski, D., Maarsingh, O. R., MacKeith, S., Ray, J., Van Vugt, V. A., & Burton, M. J. (2023). Non-pharmacological interventions for persistent postural-perceptual dizziness (PPPD). The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 3(3), Cd015333. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD015333.pub2
  • Williams, A. C. C., Fisher, E., Hearn, L., & Eccleston, C. (2020). Psychological therapies for the management of chronic pain (excluding headache) in adults. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 8(8), Cd007407. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD007407.pub4
  • Williamson, D. J., Holsman, M., Chaytor, N., Miller, J. W., & Drane, D. L. (2012). Abuse, not financial incentive, predicts non-credible cognitive performance in patients with psychogenic non-epileptic seizures. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 26(4), 588–598. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2012.670266
  • Wissel, B. D., Dwivedi, A. K., Merola, A., Chin, D., Jacob, C., Duker, A. P., Vaughan, J. E., Lovera, L., LaFaver, K., Levy, A., Lang, A. E., Morgante, F., Nirenberg, M. J., Stephen, C., Sharma, N., Romagnolo, A., Lopiano, L., Balint, B., Yu, X. X., Bhatia, K. P., & Espay, A. J. (2018). Functional neurological disorders in Parkinson disease. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 89(6), 566–571. https://doi.org/10.1136/jnnp-2017-317378

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.