114
Views
0
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Research Article

Community-level implicit biases against LGBTQ+ people predict WNBA attendance

ORCID Icon

References

  • Across the Timeline. (2022). WNBA. Across the timeline. https://www.acrossthetimeline.com/wnba/index.html
  • Agha, N., & Berri, D. (2023). Demand for basketball: A comparison of the WNBA and NBA. International Journal of Sport Finance, 18(1), 35–44. https://doi.org/10.32731/IJSF/181.022023.03
  • Armstrong, K. L., & Peretto Stratta, T. M. (2004). Market analyses of race and sport consumption. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 13(1), 7–16. https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip,uid&db=s3h&AN=12529393&site=ehost-live
  • Baiocco, R., Pistella, J., Salvati, M., Ioverno, S., & Lucidi, F. (2020). Sexual prejudice in sport scale: A new measure. Journal of Homosexuality, 67(4), 489–512. https://doi.org/10.1080/00918369.2018.1547560
  • Barron, L. G., & Hebl, M. (2013). The force of law: The effects of sexual orientation antidiscrimination legislation on interpersonal discrimination in employment. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 19(2), 191–205. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028350
  • Berri, D. (2018, July 9). Why Is the Michael Jordan of the WNBA paid less than Adonis Jordan in 1999?. https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidberri/2018/07/09/why-isnt-the-michael-jordan-of-the-wnba-paid-at-least-as-well-as-adonis-jordan-was/?sh=348d6d6dce5a
  • Borders, L. (2018). Inspiring and empowering women: The WNBA leading the way into the 21st century. Journal of Legal Aspects of Sport, 28(1), 121–125. https://heinonline.org/HOL/P?h=hein.journals/jlas28&i=121
  • Chahardovali, T., Watanabe, N. M., & Dastrup, R. W. (2024). Does location matter? An econometric analysis of stadium location and attendance at national women’s soccer league matches. Sociology of Sport Journal, 41(1), 39–50. https://doi.org/10.1123/ssj.2022-0217
  • Chawansky, M., & Francombe, J. M. (2011). Cruising for Olivia: Lesbian celebrity and the cultural politics of coming out in sport. Sociology of Sport Journal, 28(4), 461–477. https://doi.org/10.1123/ssj.28.4.461
  • Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
  • Crenshaw, K. (1990). Mapping the margins: Intersectionality, identity politics, and violence against women of color. Stanford Law Review, 43(6), 1241–1299. https://doi.org/10.2307/1229039
  • Cunningham, G. B. (2023). Diversity and inclusion in sport organizations: A multilevel perspective (5th ed.). Routledge.
  • Cunningham, G. B., & Cunningham, H. R. (2022). Bias among managers: Its prevalence across a decade and comparison across occupations. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 13. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1034712
  • Cunningham, G. B., & Melton, E. N. (2014). Varying degrees of support: Understanding parents’ positive attitudes toward LGBT coaches. Journal of Sport Management, 28(4), 387–398. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsm.2013-0004
  • Cunningham, G. B., & Nite, C. (2020). LGBT diversity and inclusion, community characteristics, and success. Journal of Sport Management, 34(6), 533–541. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsm.2019-0338
  • Cunningham, G. B., Wicker, P., & Kutsko, K. (2021). Gendered racial stereotypes and coaching intercollegiate athletic teams: The representation of Black and Asian women coaches on US women’s and men’s teams. Sex Roles, 84(9), 574–583. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-020-01186-2
  • Cunningham, G. B., & Wigfall, L. T. (2020). Race, explicit racial attitudes, implicit racial attitudes, and COVID-19 cases and deaths: An analysis of counties in the United States. PLOS ONE, 15(11 November), e0242044. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0242044
  • D’Arcangelo, L. (2022, June 15). After years of snubbing LGBTQ+ fans, WNBA is sports’ most welcoming league. The Athletic. https://theathletic.com/3333605/2022/06/15/wnba-lgbtq-fans/
  • Delia, E. B., Melton, E. N., Sveinson, K., Cunningham, G. B., & Lock, D. (2022). Understanding the lack of diversity in sport consumer behavior research. Journal of Sport Management, 1(aop), 1–12.
  • Dolance, S. (2005). “A whole stadium full”: Lesbian community at women’s national basketball association games. The Journal of Sex Research, 42(1), 74–83. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224490509552259
  • Dovidio, J. F., Hewstone, M., Glick, P., & Esses, V. M. (2010). Prejudice, stereotyping and discrimination: Theoretical and empirical overview. In J. F. Dovidio, M. Hewstone, P. Glick, & V. M. Esses (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of prejudice, discrimination and stereotyping (pp. 3–28). Sage.
  • Dovidio, J. F., Kawakami, K., & Gaertner, S. L. (2002). Implicit and explicit prejudice and interracial interaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(1), 62–68. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.82.1.62
  • Duncan, D. T., & Hatzenbuehler, M. L. (2013). Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender hate crimes and suicidality among a population-based sample of sexual-minority adolescents in Boston. American Journal of Public Health, 104(2), 272–278. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2013.301424
  • Ekstrom, P. D., Le Forestier, J. M., & Lai, C. K. (2022). Racial demographics explain the link between racial disparities in traffic stops and county-level racial attitudes. Psychological Science, 33(4), 497–509. https://doi.org/10.1177/09567976211053573
  • Fink, J. S. (2016). Hiding in Plain Sight: The Embedded Nature of Sexism in Sport. Journal of Sport Management, 30(1), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsm.2015-0278
  • Friedman, C. (2019). Family members of people with disabilities’ explicit and implicit disability attitudes. Rehabilitation Psychology, 64(2), 203–211. https://doi.org/10.1037/rep0000265
  • Garcia, C. (2020). “Betting on women”: A feminist political economic critique of ideological sports narratives surrounding the WNBA. The Political Economy of Communication, 8(1), 34–56.
  • Garrison, K. M., & Cunningham, G. B. (2023). State-level politics and bias predict transgender athlete bans. Journal of Sport Management, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsm.2023-0137
  • Greenwald, A. G., Poehlman, T. A., Uhlmann, E. L., & Banaji, M. R. (2009). Understanding and using the implicit association test: III. Meta-analysis of predictive validity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 97(1), 17–41. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015575
  • Gregory, S. (2021, January 7). ‘We did that’: Inside the WNBA’s strategy to support Raphael Warnock—and help democrats win the senate. Time. https://time.com/5927075/atlanta-dream-warnock-loeffler/
  • Hahn, A., & Gawronski, B. (2019). Facing one’s implicit biases: From awareness to acknowledgment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 116(5), 769–794. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000155
  • Hahn, A., Judd, C. M., Hirsh, H. K., & Blair, I. V. (2014). Awareness of implicit attitudes. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 143(3), 1369–1392. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035028
  • Hair, J. F., Babin, B. J., Anderson, R. E., & Black, W. C. (2018). Multivariate data analysis (8th ed.). Cengage.
  • Hooks, B. (2000). Feminist theory: From margin to center. Pluto Press.
  • Isard, R. F., & Melton, E. N. (2021, May 24). Make this the season we end discriminatory sports coverage. Sports Business Journal. https://www.sportsbusinessjournal.com/SB-Blogs/COVID19-OpEds/2021/05/24-IsardMelton.aspx?hl=risa+isard&sc=0
  • Kaiyuan Xu, F., Lofaro, N., Nosek, B. A., Greenwald, A. G., Axt, J., Simon, L., & Frost, N. (2022). Project implicit demo website datasets. Center for Open Science. https://osf.io/ctqxo/
  • Kane, M. J. (1995). Resistance/transformation of the oppositional binary: Exposing sport as a continuum. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 19(2), 191–218. https://doi.org/10.1177/019372395019002006
  • Knoppers, A., McLachlan, F., Spaaij, R., & Smits, F. (2022). Subtexts of research on diversity in sport organizations: Queering intersectional perspectives. Journal of Sport Management, 36(6), 613–622. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsm.2021-0266
  • Krane, V. (2001). We can be athletic and feminine, but do we want to? challenging hegemonic femininity in women’s sport. Quest, 53(1), 115–133. https://doi.org/10.1080/00336297.2001.10491733
  • Medow, S. (2023, September 14). WNBA 2023 regular season sets multiple records. Sport Business Journal. https://www.sportbusiness.com/news/wnba-2023-regular-season-sets-multiple-records/#:~:text=Attendance%20at%20WNBA%20games%20increased,total%20attendance%20in%2013%20seasons
  • Melton, E. N., & MacCharles, J. D. (2021). Examining sport marketing through a rainbow lens. Sport Management Review, 24(3), 421–438. https://doi.org/10.1080/14413523.2021.1880742
  • Michaels, E. K., Board, C., Mujahid, M. S., Riddell, C. A., Chae, D. H., Johnson, R. C., & Allen, A. M. (2022). Area-level racial prejudice and health: A systematic review. Health Psychology, 41(3), 211–224. https://doi.org/10.1037/hea0001141
  • Muller, T. (2007). ‘Lesbian community’ in Women’s National Basketball Association (WNBA) spaces. Social & Cultural Geography, 8(1), 9–28. https://doi.org/10.1080/14649360701251502
  • Mumcu, C., & Lough, N. (2017). Are fans proud of the WNBA’s “Pride” Campaign? Sport Marketing Quarterly, 26(1), 42–54.
  • Nosek, B. A., Smyth, F. L., Sriram, N., Lindner, N. M., Devos, T., Ayala, A., Bar-Anan, Y., Bergh, R., Cai, H., Gonsalkorale, K., Kesebir, S., Maliszewski, N., Neto, F., Olli, E., Park, J., Schnabel, K., Shiomura, K., Tulbure, B. T. … Banaji, M. R. (2009). National differences in gender–science stereotypes predict national sex differences in science and math achievement. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106(26), 10593–10597. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0809921106
  • Orchard, J., & Price, J. (2017). County-level racial prejudice and the black-white gap in infant health outcomes. Social Science & Medicine, 181, 191–198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2017.03.036
  • Payne, B. K., & Hannay, J. W. (2021). Implicit bias reflects systemic racism. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 25(11), 927–936. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2021.08.001
  • Payne, B. K., Vuletich, H. A., & Brown-Iannuzzi, J. L. (2019). Historical roots of implicit bias in slavery. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116(24), 11693–11698. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1818816116
  • Payne, B. K., Vuletich, H. A., & Lundberg, K. B. (2017). The bias of crowds: How implicit bias bridges personal and systemic prejudice. Psychological Inquiry, 28(4), 233–248. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2017.1335568
  • Pearman, F. A., & McGee, E. O. (2022). Anti-blackness and racial disproportionality in gifted education. Exceptional Children, 88(4), 359–380. https://doi.org/10.1177/00144029211073523
  • Pegoraro, A., Kennedy, H., Agha, N., Brown, N., & Berri, D. (2021). An analysis of broadcasting media using social media engagement in the WNBA. Frontiers in Sports and Active Living, 3, 3. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fspor.2021.658293
  • Riddle, T., & Sinclair, S. (2019). Racial disparities in school-based disciplinary actions are associated with county-level rates of racial bias. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116(17), 8255–8260. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1808307116
  • Shaw, S. (2019). The chaos of inclusion? Examining anti-homophobia policy development in New Zealand sport. Sport Management Review, 22(2), 247–262. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smr.2018.04.001
  • Shin, N., Xue, H., Kim, A., & Kim, A. C. H. (2023). Are we (in)visible?: Toward a critical understanding of Asian women faculty experiences in U.S. sport management. European Sport Management Quarterly, 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/16184742.2023.2273341
  • Snyder, J. S., & Henry, P. J. (2023). Regional measures of sexual-orientation bias predict where same-gender couples live. Psychological Science, 34(7), 794–808. https://doi.org/10.1177/09567976231173903
  • Son Hing, L. S., Chung-Yan, G. A., Hamilton, L. K., & Zanna, M. P. (2008). A two-dimensional model that employs explicit and implicit attitudes to characterize prejudice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94(6), 971–987. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.94.6.971
  • Stelter, M., Essien, I., Sander, C., & Degner, J. (2022). Racial bias in police traffic stops: White residents’ county-level prejudice and stereotypes are related to disproportionate stopping of black drivers. Psychological Science, 33(4), 483–496. https://doi.org/10.1177/09567976211051272
  • Thomas, M. B., & Wright, J. E., II. (2022). We can’t just shut up and play: How the NBA and WNBA are helping dismantle systemic racism. Administrative Theory & Praxis, 44(2), 143–157. https://doi.org/10.1080/10841806.2021.1918988
  • US Census Bureau. (2022, February 16). City and town population totals: 2010-2019. https://www.census.gov/data/tables/time-series/demo/popest/2010s-total-cities-and-towns.html
  • Vuletich, H. A., & Payne, B. K. (2019). Stability and change in implicit bias. Psychological Science, 30(6), 854–862. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797619844270
  • Walker, N. A., & Melton, E. N. (2015). The tipping point: The intersection of race, gender, and sexual orientation in intercollegiate sports. Journal of Sport Management, 29(3), 257–271. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsm.2013-0079
  • Weldon, S., & Zeigler, C. (2022, May 6). As WNBA tips off, 20% of players currently on rosters are LGBTQ and publicly out. OutSports. https://www.outsports.com/2022/5/6/23057400/wnba-2022-season-out-lgbtq-players
  • Williams, A. L. (2021). The heritage strikes back: athlete activism, black lives matter, and the iconic fifth wave of activism in the (W)NBA bubble. Cultural Studies ↔ Critical Methodologies, 22(3), 266–275. https://doi.org/10.1177/15327086211049718
  • Yogeeswaran, K., Gale, J., Hoffman, A., & Devos, T. (2023). Does county-level implicit national exclusion predict political participation among Asian Americans? Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 29(4), 530–539. https://doi.org/10.1037/cdp0000595
  • Zeigler, C. (2024, March 2). How the NBA and WNBA created sports’ premier culture of inclusion. Outsports. https://www.outsports.com/2023/6/27/23767972/nba-wnba-lgbtq-gay-lesbian-sports-culture-inclusion-outsports-power-100/

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.