559
Views
8
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Original Articles

Making and marking gender: Bodybuilding and the medicalization of the body from one century's end to another

Pages 1-24 | Published online: 18 Apr 2007

Notes

  • Heywood , Leslie . 1997 . “ ‘Masculinity Vanishing: Bodybuilding and Contemporary Culture’ (hereafter ‘Masculinity Vanishing') ” . In Building Bodies , Edited by: Moore , Pamela L. 180 – 1 . New Jersey : Rutgers University Press .
  • Martin , Leena St. and Gavey , Nichola . 1996 . ‘Women's Bodybuilding: Feminist Resistance and/or Femininity's Recuperation’ . Body and Society , 4 December : 556
  • Hargreaves , Jennifer . 1997 . ‘Women's Boxing and Related Activities: Introducing Images and Meanings’ . Body and Society , 3 ( 4 ) : 45
  • Heywood . “ ‘Masculinity Vanishing’ ” . 182 – 3 .
  • button , Kenneth R. 1995 . The Perfectible Body. The Western Ideal of Physical Development (hereafter The Perfectible Body) , 295 – 300 . London : Cassell .
  • Showalter , Elaine . 1990 . Sexual Anarchy: Gender and Culture at the Fin de Siècle (hereafter Sexual Anarchy) , 3 New York : Viking Penguin .
  • Sedgwick , Eve Kosofsky . 1992 . “ ‘Nationalisms and Sexualities in the Age of Wilde’ ” . In Nationalisms and Sexualities , Edited by: Parker , Andrew , Russo , Mary , Sommer , Doris and Yaeger , Patricia . 235 – 45 . 242 London : Routledge .
  • Chauncey , George Jr . 1994 . Gay New York: Gender, Urban Culture and the Makings of the Gay Male World, 1890–1940 , New York : Chauncey Basic Books .
  • Duberman , Martin Bauml , eds. 1989 . Hidden from History: Reclaiming the Gay and Lesbian Past , New York : New American Library .
  • Carnes , Mark C. and Griffin , Clyde , eds. 1990 . Meanings for Manhood: Constructions of Masculinity in Victorian America , Chicago : University of Chicago Press .
  • Showalter . Sexual Anarchy , 8
  • Mosse , George L. 1996 . The Image of Man. The Creation of Modern Masculinity (hereafter The Image of Man) , 102 Oxford : Oxford University Press .
  • Sharpe , Joanne P. 1996 . “ ‘Gendering Nationhood: A Feminist Engagement with National Identity’ (hereafter Gendering Nationhood) ” . In Body Space , Edited by: Duncan , Nancy . 97 – 108 . London and NY : Routledge .
  • Shapiro , Michael J. 1992 . ‘Warring Bodies and Bodies Politic: Tribal versus State Societies’ . Body and Society , 1 ( 1 ) : 107 – 23 .
  • Boscagli , Maurizia . 1996 . Eye on the Flesh: Fashions of Masculinity in the Early Twentieth Century (hereafter Eye of the Flesh) , 3 New York : Westview Press .
  • McClintock , Anne . 1991 . ‘No Longer in a Future Heaven. Women and Nationalism in South Africa’ . Transition , 51 : 120
  • Parker . Nationalisms and Sexualities , 2
  • Laqueur , Thomas . 1990 . Making Sex. Body and Gender from the Greeks to Freud , 194 – 207 . Cambridge : Harvard University Press .
  • Showalter . Sexual Anarchy , 2
  • Gould , Stephen Jay . 1997 . Questioning the Millennium , 37 London : Jonathan Cape .
  • Shusterman , Richard . 1997 . ‘Somaesthetics and the Body/Media Issue’ . Body and Society , 3 ( 3 ) : 33 – 49 .
  • Armstrong , David . 1994 . “ ‘Bodies of Knowledge/Knowledge of Bodies’ ” . In Reassessing Foucault: Power, Medicine and the Body , Edited by: Jones , C. and Porter , R. London : Routledge .
  • Armstrong , David . 1995 . ‘The Rise of Surveillance Medicine’ . Sociology of Health and Illness , 17 ( 3 ) : 393 – 404 .
  • Mosse . The Image of Man , 191 – 2 .
  • 1988 . ‘Camera Obscura’ . A Journal of Feminism and Film Theory , 17 May : 4 – 5 .
  • Gillespie , M.A. 1997 . ‘Men on My Mind’ . MS , Nov./Dec. : 1
  • 1997 . ‘The Promise Keepers’ . Time , Oct. 6 : 52 – 9 .
  • 1997 . ‘Men on my Mind’ . MS , Nov./Dec. : 1
  • Editorial . 1997 . Maxim , Oct.
  • Caldwell , Brian . 1996 . “ ‘Muscling in on the Movies: Excess and the Representation of the Male Body in Films of the 1980s and 1990s’ ” . In American Bodies. Cultural Histories of the Physique , Edited by: Armstrong , Tim . 134 NY : New York University Press .
  • Fox , Nicholas J. 1994 . Postmodernism, Sociology and Health (hereafter Postmodernism) , v Toronto : University of Toronto Press .
  • Foucault , Michel . 1980 . The History of Sexuality. 1. An Introduction , 39 Harmondsworth : Penguin .
  • Hughes , Bill and Paterson , Kevin . 1997 . ‘The Social Model of Disability and the Disappearing Body: Towards a Sociology of Impairment’ . Disability and Society , 12 ( 3 ) : 332
  • Bordo , Susan . 1993 . Unbearable Weight: Feminism, Western Culture and the Body , Berkeley : University of California Press .
  • Butler , Judith . 1990 . Gender Trouble; Feminism and the Subversion of Identity (hereafter Gender Trouble) , New York : Routledge .
  • Epstein , Cynthia Fuchs . 1997 . ‘The Multiple Realities of Sameness and Difference: Ideology and Practice’ (hereafter ‘The Multiple Realities') . Journal of Social Issues , 53 ( 2 ) : 259 – 78 .
  • Fox . Postmodernism , 26 – 7 .
  • Epstein . “ ‘The Multiple Realities’ ” . 274
  • Vrettos , Athena . 1995 . Somatic Fictions: Imagining Illness in Victorian Culture , Stanford, CA : Stanford University Press .
  • Roosevelt , Theodore . 1900 . The Strenuous Life: Essays and Addresses New York
  • Mangan , J.A. and Walvin , J. , eds. Manliness and Morality: Middle Class Masculinity in Britain and America, 1800–1940 , 24 – 5 . Manchester : Manchester University Press .
  • Sharpe . “ ‘Gendering Nationhood’ ” . 154
  • Boscagli . Eye on the Flesh , 5
  • Lutz , Tom . 1991 . American Nervousness, 1903: An Anecdotal History , Ithaca, NY : Cornell University Press .
  • Will , Barbara . 1996 . “ ‘Nervous Systems, 1880–1915’ ” . In American Bodies. Cultural Histories of the Physique , Edited by: Armstrong , Tim . 86 – 101 . NY : New York University Press .
  • Rosenberg , Charles E. 1998 . ‘Pathologies of Progress: The Idea of Civilization as Risk’ . Bulletin of the History of Medicine , 72 : 714 – 30 .
  • Whorton , James C. Crusaders for Fitness. The History of American Health Reformers (hereafter Crusaders for Fitness) , 289 Princeton, NJ : Princeton University Press .
  • Hall , G. Stanley . 1902 . ‘Christianity and Physical Culture’ . Pedagogical Seminar , 9 : 375
  • Whorton , James C. 1982 . ‘"Athletes” Heart: The Medical Debate over Athleticism, 1870–1920’ . Journal of Sport History , IX Spring : 34
  • Da Costa , J.M. 1874 . ‘On Strain and Over‐Action of the Heart’ . American Journal of the Medical Sciences , 68 : 505
  • Todd , Jan . 1993 . ‘Strength is Health: George Barker Windship and the First American Weight Training Boom’ . Iron Game History , 1 September : 3 – 14 .
  • Schenck , W.L. 1894 . ‘Exercise — Its Physiological Functions’ . JAMA , 22 : 417 – 21 .
  • Sargent , Dudley . 1909 . ‘The Future of Physical Education’ . Putnam's , 7 : 14 – 20 .
  • 1907 . ‘The Dangers of Athletic Training’ . American Medicine , 13 : 500
  • Whorton . Athlete's Heart , 35
  • Sargent , Dudley Allen . 1901 . ‘Ideals in Physical Education’ . Mind and Body , 8 Dec. : 221 – 6 .
  • Whorton . Crusaders for Fitness , 296
  • Waugh , Tom . 1996 . Hard to Imagine: Gay Male Eroticism in Photography and Film from their Beginning to Stonewall (hereafter Hard to Imagine) , 178 New York : Columbia University Press .
  • Perchuk , Andrew and Posner , Helaine , eds. 1995 . The Masculine Masquerade. Masculinity and Representation , Cambridge, MA : MIT Press .
  • Pronger , Brian . 1992 . The Arena of Masculinity: Sports, Homosexuality and the Meaning of Sex , 169 Toronto : University of Toronto Press .
  • Pronger , Brian . 1992 . The Arena of Masculinity: Sports, Homosexuality and the Meaning of Sex , 142 Toronto : University of Toronto Press . following
  • Waugh . Hard to Imagine , 178
  • Chapman . 1994 . Sandow the Magnificent, Eugen Sandow and the Beginnings of Bodybuilding (hereafter Sandow the Magnificent) , 124 Urbana and Chicago : University of Illinois Press . following
  • Walters , Margaret . 1978 . The Nude Male: A New Perspective , 289 NY/London : Paddington Press Ltd. .
  • Dutton . The Perfectible Body , 384 253
  • Waugh . Hard to Imagine , 186
  • Ellenzweig , Allen . 1992 . The Homoerotic Photography , 14 New York : Columbia University Press .
  • Waugh . Hard to Imagine , 186
  • Grosskurth , Phyllis . 1964 . John Addington Symonds: A Biography , 276 London : Longmans Green .
  • Waugh . Hard to Imagine , 180
  • 1971 . The Unfashionable Body , 74 New York : Doubleday .
  • Bankier , William . 1900 . Ideal Physical Culture and the Truth About the Strong Man , 41 – 2 . London : Greening and Co. Ltd. .
  • Boscagli . Eye on the Flesh , 111
  • Chapman , David L. Sandow the Magnificent , 184 – 5 .
  • Dutton . The Perfectible Body , 130
  • Berryman , Jack W. and Park , Roberta J. , eds. 1992 . “ ‘The Scientific Quest for Physical Culture and the Persistent Appeal of Quackery’ ” . In Sport and Exercise Science: Essays in the History of Sports Medicine , Urbana and Chicago : University of Illinois Press .
  • Chapman . Sandow the Magnificent , 139
  • Editorial . 1898 . ‘Physical Culture What Is It?’ . Physical Culture , 1 ( 1 ) July : 1
  • Hunt , William R. 1989 . Body Love. The Amazing Career of Bernarr Macfadden , Bowling Green, Ohio : Bowling Green State University Popular Press .
  • Macfadden , Mary and Gauvreau , Emile . 1953 . Dumbbells and Carrot Strips. The Story of Bernarr Macfadden , New York : Henry Holt .
  • Ernst , Robert . 1991 . Weakness is a Crime. The Life of Bernarr Macfadden , New York : Syracuse University Press .
  • Dutton . The Perfectible Body , 139
  • Editorial . 1902 . Journal of the American Medical Association , 34 ( 13 ) September : 775 – 6 .
  • Editorial . 1901 . ‘Physical Culture and Medicine’ . Journal of the American Medical Association , December : 1612 – 13 .
  • Fishbein , Morris . 1925 . The Medical Follies , 173 New York : Boni and Liverwright .
  • Ernst . Weakness is a Crime , 108
  • Kern , Louis J. ‘Students in the Laboratories of their Own Bodies: The (Re)construction of Male Sexuality and the Male Sexual Body in Victorian Free Love Literature’ (hereafter Students in the Laboratories) . Armstrong American Bodies , 46 – 72 .
  • Macfadden , Bernarr . 1990 . Virile Powers of Superb Manhood 111 London
  • Whorton . Crusaders for Fitness 299
  • Waugh . Hard to Imagine 185
  • Macfadden , Bernarr . 1911–12 . Macfadden's Encyclopedia of Physical Culture , 5 Vols. , 13 New York : Physical Culture Publishing Co. . 1
  • Macfadden , Bernarr . 1901 . The Power and Beauty of Superb Womanhood , 63 New York : Physical Culture Publishing Co. .
  • Fishbein . The Medical Follies , 181
  • Waugh . Hard to Imagine , 1845
  • Kern . “ ‘Students in the Laboratories’ ” . 68
  • ‘Indeed strongly anti‐patriarchical sentiment could also co‐exist comfortably with misogyny, homophobia and racism’ . Sexual Anarchy , 11
  • Brown , Heywood and Leech , Margaret . 1927 . Anthony Comstock: Roundsman of the Lord , 225 New York : Literary Guild of America .
  • Todd , Jan . 1992 . “ ‘Bernarr Macfadden: Reformer of the Feminine Form’ (hereafter ‘Bernarr Macfadden') ” . In Sport and Exercise Science. Essays in the History of Sports Medicine , Edited by: Berryman , Jack W. and Park , Roberta J. 214 – 15 . Urbana and Chicago : University of Illinois Press .
  • Sargent , Dudley . 1889 . ‘The Physical Development of Women’ . Scribners Magazine , 5 : 172 – 85 .
  • Todd . Bernarr Macfadden , 226 – 7 .
  • Weider , Ben . 1985 . Pumping Iron II — The Woman , British Distributor, Blue Dolphin, Video Distributor, Virgin . directed by George Butler
  • Dutton . The Perfectible Body , 375
  • Bordo , Susan . 1990 . “ ‘Reading the Slender Body’ ” . In Body/Politics. Women and the Discourses of Science , Edited by: Jacobs , M. 94 London : Routledge, Kegan Paul .
  • Mansfield , Alan and McGinn , Barbara . 1993 . “ ‘Pumping Iron: The Muscular and the Feminine’ ” . In Body Matters. Essays on the Sociology of the Body , Edited by: Scott , Sue and Morgan , David . 49 – 68 . London : The Falmer Press .
  • Gaines , C. and Butler , G. 1980 . Pumping Iron: The Art and Sport of Bodybuilding , London : Sphere .
  • Pope , Harrison . 1998 . ‘Muscle Dysmorphia’, Psychosomatics quoted in ‘Obsessive Bodybuilding Seen as an Emotional Disorder’ . The Vancouver Sun , 10 Jan. : C2 Sat.,
  • Dutton . The Perfectible Body , 139
  • Butler , Judith . Gender Trouble , 60
  • Bartky , Sandra L. 1988 . “ ‘Foucault, Feminism and the Modernisation of Patriarchial Power’ ” . In Feminism and Foucault: Reflections on Resistance , Edited by: Diamond , I. and Quinby , L. Boston, MA : Northeastern University Press .
  • Bordo , Susan . 1990 . “ ‘Reading the Slender Body’ ” . In Body/Politics. Women and the Discourses of Science , Edited by: Jacobs , M. 83 – 112 . London : Routledge, Kegan Paul .
  • Bolin , Anne . 1992 . “ ‘Vandalized Vanity: Feminine Physiques Betrayed and Portrayed’ ” . In Tatoo, Torture, Mutilation and Adornment. The Denaturalization of the Body in Culture and Text , Edited by: Mascia Lees , F.E. and Sharpe , Patricia . 79 – 99 . New York : State University of New York Press .
  • Pearl , R. 1989 . ‘Women and Men Judges’ . Bodybuilding Monthly , 12 ( 8 ) May : 75
  • Moore . Building Bodies , 81 83
  • Aoki , Doug . 1996 . ‘Sex and Muscle: The Female Bodybuilder Meets Lacan’ (hereafter ‘Sex and Muscle') . Body and Society , 2 ( 4 ) December : 66
  • Mitchell , J. 1987 . “ ‘Going for the Burn’ and ‘Pumping Iron: What's Healthy About the Current Fitness Boom?’ ” . In Fed Up and Hungry: Women, Oppression and Food , Edited by: Lawrence , M. 161 London : The Women's Press .
  • Aoki . “ ‘Sex and Muscle’ ” . 68
  • Wennerstrom , Steve . 1995 . ‘Flex “n” femme’ . Flex , July : 169
  • Beverley , B. 1989 . ‘Nutrition for Women Bodybuilders’ . Bodybuilding Monthly , 12 ( 8 ) : 66
  • Vertinsky , Patricia . 1998 . ‘Run, Jane, Run: Central Tensions in the Current Debate about Enhancing Women's Health through Exercise’ . Women and Health , 27 ( 4 ) : 81 – 112 .
  • Ferguson , J. 1990 . ‘Natural Women: Anabolic Steroids and the Female bodybuilder’ . Natural Physique , 3 ( 2 ) : 57 (New York: Cheo Pub Co. Inc.),
  • Aoki . “ ‘Sex and Muscle’ ” . 68
  • Fussell , Samuel Wilson . 1991 . Muscle: Confessions of an Unlikely Bodybuilder (hereafter Muscle) , 13 – 8 . New York : Poseidon Press .
  • Dutton . The Perfectible Body , 295
  • Zane , Frank . 1993 . Fabulously Fit Forever , 17 – 18 . Palm Spring : Zananda .
  • Fussell . Muscle , 137 – 8 .
  • Klein , Alan . 1993 . Little Big Man: Bodybuilding Subculture and Gender Construction , 242 246 Albany : State University of New York Press .
  • Holmlund , Chris . 1993 . “ ‘Masculinity as Multiple Masquerade’ ” . In Screening the Male , Edited by: Cohan , Steven and Hark , Ina Rae . 218 New York : Routledge .
  • Heywood . “ ‘Masculinity Vanishing’ ” . 171
  • Turner , Bryan . 1994 . ‘Theoretical Developments in the Sociology of the Body’ . Australian Cultural History , 13 : 28
  • Vrettos . Somatic Fictions , 2 – 3 .
  • Deleuze , Giles . 1992 . ‘Postscript on the Societies of Control’ . October , 59 Winter : 18
  • Lykke , Nina and Braidotti , Rosi , eds. 1996 . Between Monsters, Goddesses and Cyborgs , London : Zed Books .
  • 1991 . “ ‘A Cyborg Manifesto: Science, Technology and Socialist‐Feminism in the Late Twentieth Century’ ” . In Simians, Cyborgs and Women: The Reinvention of Nature , 50 New York : Routledge .
  • Vrettos . Somatic Fictions , 80
  • Epstein , Julie . 1995 . Altered Conditions: Disease, Medicine and Storytelling , 185 New York : Routledge .
  • Lupton , Deborah . 1997 . “ ‘Foucault and the Medicalisation Critique’ ” . In Foucault, Health and Medicine , Edited by: Peterson , Alan and Burton , Robin . 94 – 112 . 101 New York : Routledge .
  • Arnoll , B. and Weinbina , B. 1994 . ‘Moving the Nation: Current Approaches to Physical Activity’ . New Zealand Medical Journal , Sept. 28 : 370
  • Owen , Neville . 1996 . Strategic Initiatives to Promote Participation in Physical Activity . Health Promotion International , 11 ( 3 ) : 21318
  • Tanji , Jeffrey L. 1997 . ‘Sports Medicine’ . JAMA , 277 (23) 18 June : 1901 – 2 .
  • Hawks , David . 1997 . ‘The New Public Health: Nanny in a New Hat?’ . Addiction , 92 ( 9 ) : 117 – 57 .
  • Paffenbarger , Ralph S. Jr . 1995 . quoted in Julie Califano, ‘The Heart of the Matter’ . American Health , September : 38 – 40 .
  • Parker . Nationalisms and Sexualities , 6
  • Charon , Rita . 1992 . ‘To Build a Case: Medical Histories as Traditions in Conflict’ . Literature and Medicine , 11 ( 1 ) Spring : 118
  • Laclau , Ernesto and Mouffe , Chantal . 1995 . Health and Illness: Images of Difference , Edited by: Gilman , Sander L. 176 London : Reaktion Books .

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.