From Ponds to Pine Plantations in 9000 Years: The Environmental Archaeology of Beck Burn, Solway Moss, Cumbria

References

• Andersen, S. T. 1979. “Identification of Wild Grasses and Cereal Pollen.” Danmarks Geologiske Underøgelse Årbok 1978: 69–92.
   Google Scholar
• Armit, I., G. T. Swindles, K. Becker, G. Plunkett, and M. Blaauw. 2014. “Rapid Climate Change did not Cause Population Collapse at the End of the European Bronze Age.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 111 (48): 17045–17049. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1408028111.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ayala, G., M. Canti, J. Heathcote, R. Usai, and J. Sidell. 2007. Geoarchaeology: Using Earth Sciences to Understand the Archaeological Record. London: English Heritage.
   Google Scholar
• Barber, K. E. 1981. Peat Stratigraphy and Climatic Change: A Palaeoecological Test of the Theory of Cyclic Peat Bog Regeneration. Rotterdam: Balkema.
   Google Scholar
• Barber, K. E., L. Dumayne-Peaty, P. D. M. Hughes, D. Mauquoy, and R. Scaife. 1998. “Replicability and Variability of the Recent Macrofossil and Proxy-Climate Record from Raised Bogs: Field Stratigraphy and Macrofossil Data from Bolton Fell Moss and Walton Moss, Cumbria, England.” Journal of Quaternary Science 13 (6): 515–528. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-1417(1998110)13:6<515::AID-JQS393>3.0.CO;2-S.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berglund, B. E., and M. Ralska-Jasiewiczowa. 1986. “Pollen Analysis and Pollen Diagrams.” In Handbook of Holocene Palaeoecology and Palaeohydrology, edited by B. E. Berglund, 455–484. Chichester: Wiley.
   Google Scholar
• Bevan, A., S. Colledge, D. Fuller, R. Fyfe, S. Shennan, and C. Stevens. 2017. “Holocene Fluctuations in Human Population Demonstrate Repeated Links to Food and Climate.” Proceedings of the Natural Academy of Sciences 114 (49): E10524–E10531. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1709190114.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bewley, R. H. 1994. Prehistoric and Romano-British Settlement in the Solway Plain, Cumbria. Oxford: Oxbow Monographs 36.
   Google Scholar
• Bewley, R. H., I. H. Longworth, S. Browne, J. P. Huntley, and G. Varnell. 1992. “Excavation of a Bronze Age Cemetery at Ewanrigg, Maryport, Cumbria.” Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 58 (1): 325–354. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0079497X00004217.
   Google Scholar
• Bradley, R. 2022. Maritime Archaeology on Dry Land: Special Sites along the Coasts of Britain and Ireland from the First Farmers to the Atlantic Bronze Age. Oxford: Oxbow.
   Google Scholar
• Bridgland, D., J. Innes, A. Long, and W. Mitchell. 2011. Late Quaternary Landscape Evolution of the Swale-Ure Washlands, North Yorkshire. Oxford: Oxbow.
   Google Scholar
• Brock, F., S. Lee, R. A. Housley, and C. Bronk Ramsey. 2011. “Variation in the Radiocarbon Age of Different Fractions of Peat: A Case Study from Ahrenshöft, Northern Germany.” Quaternary Geochronology 6 (6): 550–555. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quageo.2011.08.003.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bronk Ramsey, C. 2009. “Bayesian Analysis of Radiocarbon Dates.” Radiocarbon 51 (1): 337–360. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033822200033865.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bronk Ramsey, C., and S. Lee. 2013. “Recent and Planned Developments of the Program OxCal.” Radiocarbon 55 (2): 720–730. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033822200057878.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown, T. 2008. “The Bronze Age Climate and Environment of Britain.” Bronze Age Review 1: 7–22.
   Google Scholar
• Brown, F., P. Clark, A. Dickson, R. A. Gregory, and J. Zant. 2023. From an Ancient Eden to a New Frontier: Archaeological Investigations Along the Carlisle Northern Development Route. Lancaster: Oxford Archaeology, Lancaster Imprints 32.
   Google Scholar
• Campbell, G., L. Moffett, and V. Straker. 2011. Environmental Archaeology: A Guide to the Theory and Practice of Methods, from Sampling and Recovery to Post-excavation. 2nd ed. Portsmouth: English Heritage.
   Google Scholar
• Canti, M., and J. Corcoran. 2015. Geoarchaeology: Using Earth Sciences to Understand the Archaeological Record. Swindon: Historic England.
   Google Scholar
• Carver, M. 2019. Formative Britain: An Archaeology of Britain, Fifth to Eleventh Century AD. Abingdon and New York: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Chitty, G., and M. Brennand. 2007. “An Archaeological Research Framework for the North West Region: Research Agenda Introduction.” Chap. 1 In An Archaeological Research Framework for North West England: Volume 2. Research Agenda and Strategy, edited by M. Brennand, 7–30. Manchester: Council for British Archaeology North West, Archaeology North West 9.
   Google Scholar
• Coombes, P. V. M., R. C. Chiverrell, and K. E. Barber. 2009. “A High-Resolution Pollen and Geochemical Analysis of Late Holocene Human Impact and Vegetation History in Southern Cumbria, England.” Journal of Quaternary Science 24 (3): 224–236. https://doi.org/10.1002/jqs.1219.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dark, P. 2006. “Climatic Deterioration and Land-Use Change in the First Millennium BC: Perspectives from the British Palynological Record.” Journal of Archaeological Science 33 (10): 1381–1395. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2006.01.009.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dumayne, L. 1995. “Human Impact on Vegetation in Northern Cumbria Since the Bronze Age: Relating Palynological and Archaeological Evidence.” Transactions of the Cumberland and Westmorland Antiquarian and Archaeological Society, New Series 95: 23–33.
   Google Scholar
• Dunbar, E., G. T. Cook, P. Naysmith, B. G. Tripney, and S. Xu. 2016. “AMS 14C Dating at the Scottish Universities Environmental Research Centre (SUERC) Radiocarbon Dating Laboratory.” Radiocarbon 58 (1): 9–23. https://doi.org/10.1017/RDC.2015.2.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Evans, J. 1897. Ancient Stone Implements of Great Britain. London: Longmans.
   Google Scholar
• Fægri, K., and J. Iversen. 1989. Textbook of Pollen Analysis. 4th ed. by K. Fægri, P. E. Kaland, and K. Kryzwinski. Chichester: Wiley.
   Google Scholar
• Fitzpatrick, A. P. 2015. “Great Britain and Ireland in 2200 BC.” In 2200 BC – A Climatic Breakdown as a Cause for the Collapse of the Old World? Seventh Archaeological Conference of Central Germany October 23-6, 2014, Halle (Saale), edited by H. M. Herausgeber, H. W. Arz, R. Jung, and R. Risch, 805–832. Halle (Saale): Tagungen des Landesmuseums für Vorgeschichte Halle, Band 12/11.
   Google Scholar
• Gregory, R. A. 2001a. “Living on the Frontier: Iron Age – Roman Transitions in South West Scotland.” In The Archaeology of the Roman Empire: A Tribute to the Life and Works of Professor Barri Jones, edited by N. J. Higham, 35–50. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports, International Series 940, Archaeopress.
   Google Scholar
• Gregory, R. A. 2001b. “Excavations at Hayknowes Farm, Annan.” Transactions of the Dumfriesshire and Galloway Natural History and Antiquarian Society 75: 29–46.
   Google Scholar
• Gregory, R. A. 2002. “Prehistoric Landscapes in Dumfries and Galloway: Part 2 – Bronze Age Landscapes.” Transactions of the Dumfriesshire and Galloway Natural History and Antiquarian Society 76: 45–78.
   Google Scholar
• Grimm, E. C. 1987. “CONISS: A FORTRAN 77 Program for Stratigraphically Constrained Cluster Analysis by the Method of Incremental Sum of Squares.” Computer and Geosciences 13 (1): 13–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/0098-3004(87)90022-7.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grimm, E. C. 1991–2015. TiliaIT.com, version 2.0.41.
   Google Scholar
• Grosvenor, M. J., R. T. Jones, C. S. M. Turney, D. J. Charman, A. Hogg, D. Coward, and R. Wilson. 2017. “Human Activity was a Major Driver of the Mid-Holocene Vegetation Change in Southern Cumbria: Implications for the Elm Decline in the British Isles.” Journal of Quaternary Science 32 (7): 934–945. https://doi.org/10.1002/jqs.2967.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hamilton, D., and T. Kinnaird. 2022. “Building Chronologies for Europe’s Lost Frontiers: Radiocarbon Dating and Age-depth Modelling.” In Europe’s Lost Frontiers. Volume 1: Context and Methodology, edited by V. Gaffney, and S. Fitch, 181–189. Oxford: Archaeopress.
   Google Scholar
• Hibbert, F. A., and V. R. Switsur. 1976. “Radiocarbon Dating of Flandrian Pollen Zones in Wales and Northern England.” New Phytologist 77 (3): 793–807. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8137.1976.tb04676.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hodgkinson, D., E. Huckerby, R. Middleton, and C. E. Wells. 2000. The Lowland Wetlands of Cumbria. North West Wetlands Survey 6. Lancaster: Oxford Archaeology, Lancaster Imprints 8.
   Google Scholar
• Howard-Davis, C., C. Stocks, and J. B. Innes. 1988. Peat and the Past. Lancaster: English Heritage.
   Google Scholar
• Hughes, P. D. M. 1997. “The Palaeoecology of the Fen/Bog Transition During the Early- to Mid-Holocene in Britain.” (PhD diss). University of Southampton.
   Google Scholar
• Hughes, P. D., D. Mauquoy, K. E. Barber, and P. G. Langdon. 2000. “Mire Development Pathways and Palaeoclimatic Records from a Full Holocene Peat Archive at Walton Moss, Cumbria.” Holocene 10 (4): 465–479. https://doi.org/10.1191/095968300675142023.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Innes, J. B., and J. Blackford. 2017. “Palynology and the Study of the Mesolithic-Neolithic Transition in the British Isles.” In The Archaeological and Forensic Applications of Microfossils: A Deeper Understanding of Human History, edited by M. Williams, T. Hill, I. Boomer, and I. Wilkinson, 55–78. London: The Geological Society.
   Google Scholar
• Innes, J. B., J. Blackford, and I. G. Simmons. 2011. “Mesolithic Environments at Star Carr, the Eastern Vale of Pickering and Environs: Local and Regional Contexts.” Journal of Wetland Archaeology 11 (1): 85–108. https://doi.org/10.1179/jwa.2011.11.1.85.
   Google Scholar
• Jacobson, G. L., and R. H. W. Bradshaw. 1981. “The Selection of Sites for Palaeovegetational Studies.” Quaternary Research 16 (1): 80–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/0033-5894(81)90129-0.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kearney, K., and B. R. Gearey. 2020. “The Elm Decline is Dead! Long Live Declines in Elm: Revisiting the Chronology of the Elm Decline in Ireland and its Association with the Mesolithic/Neolithic Transition.” Environmental Archaeology, https://doi.org/10.1080/14614103.2020.1721694.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kirby, M. 2011. Lockerbie Academy: Neolithic and Early Historic Timber Halls, A Bronze Age Cemetery, an Undated Enclosure and a Post-medieval Corn-drying Kiln in South-west Scotland. Scottish Archaeological Internet Reports 46. https://doi.org/10.5284/1017938.
   Google Scholar
• Lamb, H. H. 1995. Climate, History and the Modern World. London: Methuen
   Google Scholar
• Langdon, P. G., and K. E. Barber. 2005. “The Climate of Scotland Over the Last 5000 Years Inferred from Multiproxy Peatland Records: Inter-Site Correlations and Regional Variability.” Journal of Quaternary Science 20 (6): 549–566. https://doi.org/10.1002/jqs.934.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mitchell, E. A. D., J. Charman, and B. G. Warner. 2008. “Testate Amoebae Analysis in Ecological and Palaeoecological Studies of Wetlands: Past, Present and Future.” Biodiversity Conservation 17 (9): 2115–2137. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-007-9221-3.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mook, W. G. 1986. “Business Meeting: Recommendations/Resolutions Adopted by the Twelfth International Radiocarbon Conference.” Radiocarbon 28: 799.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moore, P. D., J. A. Webb, and M. E. Collinson. 1991. Pollen analysis. 2nd ed. Oxford: Blackwell.
   Google Scholar
• Owen, P. 1998. “The Environmental Evidence.” In Prehistoric Landscapes in Dumfries and Galloway, edited by R. A. Gregory, 379–388. Manchester: PhD diss. University of Manchester.
   Google Scholar
• Oxford Archaeology (OA) North. 2016. Beck Burn Wind Farm, Solway Moss, Cumbria, Palaeoenvironmental Assessment Report. 2016-17/1764. Lancaster.
   Google Scholar
• Oxford Archaeology (OA) North. 2018. Beck Burn Wind Farm, Solway Moss, Cumbria, Palaeoenvironmental Analysis Report. 2017-18/1899. Lancaster: https://knowledge.oxfordarchaeology.com/library/list?search=beck+burn.
   Google Scholar
• Parker, A. G., A. S. Goudie, D. E. Anderson, M. A. Robinson, and C. Bonsall. 2002. “A Review of the Mid-Holocene Elm Decline in the British Isles.” Progress in Physical Geography 26 (1): 1–45. https://doi.org/10.1191/0309133302pp323ra.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peglar, S. M. 1993. “The Mid-Holocene Ulmus Decline at Diss Mere, Norfolk, UK: A Year-by-Year Pollen Stratigraphy from Annual Laminations.” Holocene 3 (1): 1–13.
   Google Scholar
• Pennington, W. 1997. “Vegetational history.” In Flora of Cumbria, edited by G. Halliday, 42–50. Lancaster: Centre for North West Regional Studies, University of Lancaster.
   Google Scholar
• Quartermaine, J., and R. H. Leech. 2012. Cairns, Fields, and Cultivation: Archaeological Landscapes of the Lake District Uplands. Lancaster: Oxford Archaeology, Lancaster Imprints 19.
   Google Scholar
• Reimer, P., W. Austin, E. Bard, A. Bayliss, P. Blackwell, C. Bronk Ramsey, M. Butzin, et al. 2020. “The IntCal20 Northern Hemisphere Radiocarbon Age Calibration Curve (0–55 cal kBP).” Radiocarbon 62 (4): 1–33. https://doi.org/10.1017/RDC.2020.41.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Research Frameworks. 2021. North West Regional Framework. https://researchframeworks.org/nwrf/.
   Google Scholar
• Robinson, D. E., and T. Wilmott. 2009. “Interpretation: the Pre-Wall Landscape”. In “Transection in Wall Mile 29 (Black Carts), Northumberland”, by T. Wilmott. In “The Linear Elements of the Hadrian’s Wall Complex: Four Investigations 1983-2000”, by T. Wilmott and J. Bennett. In Hadrian’s Wall: Archaeological Research by English Heritage 1976-2000, edited by T. Wilmott, 98-102. Swindon: English Heritage.
   Google Scholar
• Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland (RCAHMS). 1997. Eastern Dumfriesshire: An Archaeological Landscape. Edinburgh: The Stationery Office.
   Google Scholar
• Stace, C. 2010. New Flora of the British Isles. 3rd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Stuiver, M., and P. J. Reimer. 1986. “A Computer Program for Radiocarbon Age Calculation.” Radiocarbon 28 (2B): 1022–1030. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033822200060276.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sugita, S. 1994. “Pollen Representation of Vegetation in Quaternary Sediments: Theory and Method in Patchy Vegetation.” Journal of Ecology 82 (4): 881–897. https://doi.org/10.2307/2261452.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Symonds, F. A., and D. J. P. Mason. 2009. Frontiers of Knowledge: A Research Framework for Hadrian’s Wall, part of the Frontiers for the Roman Empire World Heritage Site. Volume I, Resource Assessment. Durham: English Heritage.
   Google Scholar
• Tipping, R. M. 1995a. ““Holocene Evolution of a Lowland Scottish Landscape: Kirkpatrick Fleming. Part II, Regional Vegetation and Land-use Change.” Holocene 5 (1): 83–96.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tipping, R. M. 1995b. “Holocene Evolution of a Lowland Scottish Landscape: Kirkpatrick Fleming. Part I, Peat and Pollen Stratigraphic Evidence for Raised Moss Development and Climate Change.” Holocene 5 (1): 69–81. https://doi.org/10.1177/095968369500500108.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tipping, R. M. 1997. “The Environmental History of the Landscape.” In Eastern Dumfriesshire: An Archaeological Landscape, edited by the Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland, 10–25. Edinburgh: The Stationery Office.
   Google Scholar
• Turner, R., A. Kelly, and N. Roberts. 2008. “A Critical Assessment and Experimental Comparison of Microscopic Charcoal Extraction Methods.” In Charcoals from the Past: Cultural and Palaeoenvironmental Implications. Proceedings of the Third International Meeting of Anthracology, edited by G. Fiorentino, and D. Magri, 265–272. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports International Series 1807, Archaeopress.
   Google Scholar
• Turner, T., G. Swindles, and K. Roucoux. 2014. “Late Holocene Ecohydrological and Carbon Dynamics of a UK Raised Bog: Impact of Human Activity and Climate Change.” Quaternary Science Review 84: 65–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2013.10.030.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Geel, B. 1978. “A Palaeoecological Study of Holocene Peat Bog Sections in Germany and the Netherlands Based on the Analysis of Pollen, Spores and Macro- and Microscopic Remains of Fungi, Algae, Cormophytes and Animals.” Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 25 (1): 1–120. https://doi.org/10.1016/0034-6667(78)90040-4.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Geel, B., and A. Aptroot. 2006. “Fossil Ascomycetes in Quaternary Deposits.” Nova Hedwigia 82 (3-4): 313–329. https://doi.org/10.1127/0029-5035/2006/0082-0313.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walker, D. 1966. “The Late Quaternary History of the Cumberland Lowland.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 251: 1–120.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ward, G. K., and S. R. Wilson. 1978. “Procedures for Comparing and Combining Radiocarbon Age Determinations: A Critique.” Archaeometry 20 (1): 19–31. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4754.1978.tb00208.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whitehouse, N. J., R. J. Schulting, M. McClatchie, P. Barratt, T. Rowan McLaughlin, A. Boggard, S. Colledge, R. Marchant, J. Gaffrey, and M. J. Bunting. 2014. “Neolithic Agriculture on the European Western Frontier: The Boom and Bust of Early Farming in Ireland.” Journal of Archaeological Science 51: 181–205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2013.08.009.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wimble, G., C. E. Wells, and D. Hodgkinson. 2000. “Human Impact on Mid-Late Holocene Vegetation in South Cumbria, UK.” Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 9 (1): 17–30. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01295011.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woodbridge, J., R. M. Fyfe, N. Roberts, S. Downey, K. Edinborough, and S. Shennan. 2014. “The Impact of the Neolithic Agricultural Transition in Britain: A Comparison of Pollen-Based Land-Cover and Archaeological 14C Date-Inferred Population Change.” Journal of Archaeological Science 51: 216–224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2012.10.025.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar