Leverage points to address climate change risk in destinations

References

• Abson, D. J., Fischer, J., Leventon, J., Newig, J., Schomerus, T., Vilsmaier, U., von Wehrden, H., Abernethy, P., Ives, C. D., Jager, N. W., & Lang, D. J. (2017). Leverage points for sustainability transformation. Ambio, 46(1), 30–39. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-016-0800-y
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Addinsall, C., Weiler, B., Scherrer, P., & Glencross, K. (2017). Agroecological tourism: Bridging conservation, food security and tourism goals to enhance smallholders’ livelihoods on South Pentecost, Vanuatu. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 25(8), 1100–1116. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2016.1254221
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allen, M. (2008). Land reform in Melanesia: State, society and governance in Melanesia. Briefing Note, no. 6. Australian National University.
   Google Scholar
• Anderberg, S. (2005). Systems analysis in geography. In M.-O. Olsson & G. Sjöstedt (Eds.), Systems approaches and their application: Examples from Sweden (pp. 79–93). Springer Netherlands.
   Google Scholar
• Andrew, N. L., Bright, P., de la Rua, L., Teoh, S. J., & Vickers, M. (2019). Coastal proximity of populations in 22 Pacific Island Countries and Territories. PLoS One, 14(9), e0223249. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0223249
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ateljevic, I., Harris, C., Wilson, E., & Collins, F. L. (2005). Getting ‘entangled’: Reflexivity and the ‘critical turn’ in tourism studies. Tourism Recreation Research, 30(2), 9–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/02508281.2005.11081469
   Google Scholar
• Baggio, R. (2008). Symptoms of complexity in a tourism system. Tourism Analysis, 13(1), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.3727/108354208784548797
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barnett, J. (2003). Security and climate change. Global Environmental Change, 13(1), 7–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0959-3780(02)00080-8
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Becken, S. (2005). Harmonising climate change adaptation and mitigation: The case of tourist resorts in Fiji. Global Environmental Change: Human and Policy Dimensions, 15(4), 381–393. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2005.08.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Becken, S. (2013). Developing a framework for assessing resilience of tourism sub-systems to climatic factors. Annals of Tourism Research, 43, 506–528. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2013.06.002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Becken, S. (2017). Evidence of a low-carbon tourism paradigm? Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 25(6), 832–850. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2016.1251446
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Becken, S. (2019). Decarbonising tourism: Mission impossible? Tourism Recreation Research, 44(4), 419–433. https://doi.org/10.1080/02508281.2019.1598042
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Becken, S., Whittlesea, E., Loehr, J., & Scott, D. (2020). Tourism and climate change: Evaluating the extent of policy integration. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 28(10), 1603–1624. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2020.1745217
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bramwell, B., & Sharman, A. (1999). Collaboration in local tourism policymaking. Annals of Tourism Research, 26(2), 392–415. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0160-7383(98)00105-4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Calgaro, E., Lloyd, K., & Dominey-Howes, D. (2014). From vulnerability to transformation: A framework for assessing the vulnerability and resilience of tourism destinations. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 22(3), 341–360. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2013.826229
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheer, J. M., Pratt, S., Tolkach, D., Bailey, A., Taumoepeau, S., & Movono, A. (2018). Tourism in Pacific island countries: A status quo round-up. Asia & the Pacific Policy Studies, 5(3), 442–461. https://doi.org/10.1002/app5.250
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheer, J. M., Reeves, K. J., & Laing, J. H. (2013). Tourism and traditional culture: Land diving in Vanuatu. Annals of Tourism Research, 43, 435–455. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2013.06.005
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cole, S., & Browne, M. (2015). Tourism and water inequity in Bali: A social-ecological systems analysis. Human Ecology, 43(3), 439–450. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10745-015-9739-z
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cote, M., & Nightingale, A. J. (2012). Resilience thinking meets social theory. Progress in Human Geography, 36(4), 475–489. https://doi.org/10.1177/0309132511425708
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Day, J., Forster, T., Himmelsbach, J., Korte, L., Mucke, P., Radtke, K., & Thielbörger, P., Weller, D. (2019). World risk report. Retrieved July 8, 2021, from https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/WorldRiskReport-2019_Online_english.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Department of Tourism. (2019). Vanuatu tourism standards programme. Department of Tourism, Ministry of Tourism, Trade, Commerce & Ni-Vanuatu Business. https://tourism.gov.vu/accreditation.php
   Google Scholar
• Department of Tourism. (2021). The Vanuatu sustainable tourism strategy (VSTS) (2021-2025). Retrieved October 18, 2021, from https://tourism.gov.vu/index.php/en/about/reports-plans-policies/plans
   Google Scholar
• Dwyer, L. (2018). Saluting while the ship sinks: The necessity for tourism paradigm change. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 26(1), 29–48. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2017.1308372
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Espiner, S., & Becken, S. (2014). Tourist towns on the edge: Conceptualising vulnerability and resilience in a protected area tourism system. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 22(4), 646–665. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2013.855222
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fischer, J., & Riechers, M. (2019). A leverage points perspective on sustainability. People and Nature, 1(1), 115–120. https://doi.org/10.1002/pan3.13
   Google Scholar
• Florida, R. (2018). The global tourism backlash. Retrieved accessed May 8, 2021, from https://www.citylab.com/life/2018/08/the-global-tourism-backlash/566228
   Google Scholar
• Fook, J. (1996). The reflective researcher: Social workers’ theories of practice research. Allen & Unwin.
   Google Scholar
• Forrester, J. W. (1971). World dynamics. Wright-Allen Press.
   Google Scholar
• Füssel, H. M. (2007). Adaptation planning for climate change: Concepts, assessment approaches, and key lessons. Sustainability Science, 2(2), 265–275. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625-007-0032-y
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gallopin, G. C. (2006). Linkages between vulnerability, resilience, and adaptive capacity. Global Environmental Change, 16(3), 293–303. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2006.02.004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gössling, S., & Scott, D. (2018). The decarbonisation impasse: Global tourism leaders’ views on climate change mitigation. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 26(12), 2071–2086. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2018.1529770
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gössling, S., Scott, D., & Hall, C. M. (2021). Pandemics, tourism and global change: A rapid assessment of COVID-19. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 29(1), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2020.1758708
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Government of the Republic of Vanuatu. (2015). Vanuatu climate change and disaster risk reduction policy 2016–2030. Secretariat of the Pacific Community.
   Google Scholar
• Government of the Republic of Vanuatu. (2020). Vanuatu’s first nationally determined contribution (NDC). Retrieved January 19, 2021, from https://www4.unfccc.int/sites/ndcstaging/PublishedDocuments/Vanuatu%20First/Vanuatu%E2%80%99s%20First%20Nationally%20Determined%20Contribution%20(NDC)%20(Updated%20Submission%202020).pdf
   Google Scholar
• Hafezi, M., Stewart, R. A., Sahin, O., Giffin, A. L., & Mackey, B. (2021). Evaluating coral reef ecosystem services outcomes from climate change adaptation strategies using integrative system dynamics. Journal of Environmental Management, 285, 112082. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.112082
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hall, C. M., Scott, D., & Gössling, S. (2020). Pandemics, transformations and tourism: Be careful what you wish for. Tourism Geographies, 22(3), 577–598. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616688.2020.1759131
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hambira, W. L., Saarinen, J., Manwa, H., & Atlhopheng, J. R. (2013). Climate change adaptation practices in nature-based tourism in Maun in the Okavango Delta area, Botswana: How prepared are the tourism businesses? Tourism Review International, 17(1), 19–29. https://doi.org/10.3727/154427213X13649094288025
   Google Scholar
• Heslinga, J. H., Groote, P., & Vanclay, F. (2017). Using a social-ecological systems perspective to understand tourism and landscape interactions in coastal areas. Journal of Tourism Futures, 3(1), 23–38. https://doi.org/10.1108/JTF-10-2015-0047
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Higgins-Desbiolles, F. (2020). Socialising tourism for social and ecological justice after COVID-19. Tourism Geographies, 22(3), 610–623. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616688.2020.1757748
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Higgins-Desbiolles, F., Carnicelli, S., Krolikowski, C., Wijesinghe, G., & Boluk, K. (2019). Degrowing tourism: Rethinking tourism. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 27(12), 1926–1944. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2019.1601732
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Higham, J., & Miller, G. (2018). Transforming societies and transforming tourism: Sustainable tourism in times of change. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 26(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2018.1407519
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hudson, L. A., & Ozanne, J. L. (1988). Alternative ways of seeking knowledge in consumer research. Journal of Consumer Research, 14(4), 508–521. https://doi.org/10.1086/209132
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hughey, K. F. D., & Becken, S. (2014). Understanding climate coping as a basis for strategic climate change adaptation – The case of Queenstown-Lake Wanaka, New Zealand. Global Environmental Change, 27, 168–179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2014.03.004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• IPCC. (2018). Global warming of 1.5 °C (V. Masson-Delmotte, P. Zhai, H.-O. Pörtner, D. Roberts, J. Skea, P. R. Shukla, A. Pirani, W. Moufouma-Okia, C. Péan, R. Pidcock, S. Connors, J. B. R. Matthews, Y. Chen, X. Zhou, M. I. Gomis, E. Lonnoy, T. Maycock, M. Tignor, & T. Waterfield, Eds.). World Meteorological Organization.
   Google Scholar
• IPCC. (2021). Summary for policymakers. In V. Masson-Delmotte, P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S. L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M. I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J. B. R. Matthews, T. K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, & B. Zhou (Eds.), Climate change 2021: The physical science basis. Contribution of working group I to the sixth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Khan, A., & Amelie, V. (2015). Assessing climate change readiness in Seychelles: Implications for ecosystem-based adaptation mainstreaming and marine spatial planning. Regional Environmental Change, 15(4), 721–733. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-014-0662-4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klint, L. M., Wong, E., Jiang, M., Delacy, T., Harrison, D., & Dominey-Howes, D. (2012). Climate change adaptation in the Pacific Island tourism sector: Analysing the policy environment in Vanuatu. Current Issues in Tourism, 15(3), 247–274. https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2011.608841
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lenton, T. M., Rockström, J., Gaffney, O., Rahmstorf, S., Richardson, K., Steffen, W., & Schellnhuber, H. J. (2019). Climate tipping points - Too risky to bet against. Nature, 575(7784), 592–595. https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-019-03595-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lew, A. A., Cheer, J. M., Haywood, M., Brouder, P., & Salazar, N. B. (2020). Visions of travel and tourism after the global COVID-19 transformation of 2020. Tourism Geographies, 22(3), 455–466. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616688.2020.1770326
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loehr, J. (2020). The Vanuatu tourism adaptation system: A holistic approach to reducing climate risk. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 28(4), 515–534. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2019.1683185
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loehr, J., Addinsall, C., & Weiler, B. (2019). Understanding how context affects resilience and its consequences for sustainable tourism. In S. F. McCool & K. Bosak (Eds.), A research agenda for sustainable tourism (pp. 39–52). Edward Elgar.
   Google Scholar
• Loehr, J., & Becken, S. (2021). The tourism climate change knowledge system. Annals of Tourism Research, 86, 103073. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2020.103073
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loehr, J., Becken, S., Nalau, J., & Mackey, B. (2020). Exploring the multiple benefits of ecosystem-based adaptation in tourism for climate risks and destination well-being. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 25(1), 78–96. https://doi.org/10.1177/1096348020944438
   Google Scholar
• Lovelock, J. (2009). The vanishing face of Gaia: A final warning. Penguin Books.
   Google Scholar
• Mackey, B. (2019). Climate change, science and country: A never-ending story. Griffith Review, 63. Retrieved October 18, 2021, from https://www.griffithreview.com/articles/climate-change-science-and-country/
   Google Scholar
• Mai, T., & Smith, C. (2015). Addressing the threats to tourism sustainability using systems thinking: A case study of Cat Ba Island, Vietnam. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 23(10), 1504–1528. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2015.1045514
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matin, N., Forrester, J., & Ensor, J. (2018). What is equitable resilience? World Development, 109, 197–205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2018.04.020
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McMillen, H. L., Ticktin, T., Friedlander, A., Jupiter, S. D., Thaman, R., Campbell, J., Veitayaki, J., Giambelluca, T., Nihmei, S., Rupeni, E., Apis-Overhoff, L., Aalbersberg, W., & Orcherton, D. F. (2014). Small islands, valuable insights: Systems of customary resource use and resilience to climate change in the Pacific. Ecology and Society, 19(4), 44. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-06937-190444
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meadows, D. H. (1999). Leverage points: Places to intervene in a system. The Sustainability Institute. Retrieved January 19, 2021, from http://donellameadows.org/wp-content/userfiles/Leverage_Points.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Meadows, D. H. (2008). Thinking in systems: A primer (D. J. Wright, Ed.). Chelsea Green Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Morley, C. (2008). Critical reflection as a research methodology. In P. Liamputtong & R. Rumbold (Eds.), Knowing differently: Arts-based and collaborative research methods (pp. 265–280). Nova Science Publishers.
   Google Scholar
• Mortari, L. (2015). Reflectivity in research practice: An overview of different perspectives. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 14(5), 1609406915618045. https://doi.org/10.1177/1609406915618045
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Movono, A., & Dahles, H. (2017). Female empowerment and tourism: A focus on businesses in a Fijian village. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 22(6), 681–692. https://doi.org/10.1080/10941665.2017.1308397
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Movono, A., Dahles, H., & Becken, S. (2018). Fijian culture and the environment: A focus on the ecological and social interconnectedness of tourism development. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 26(3), 451–469. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2017.1359280
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Munang, R., Thiaw, I., Alverson, K., Mumba, M., Liu, J., & Rivington, M. (2013). Climate change and ecosystem-based adaptation: A new pragmatic approach to buffering climate change impacts. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 5(1), 67–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2012.12.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Musikanski, L., Rogers, P., Smith, S., Koldowski, J., & Iriarte, L. (2019). Planet happiness: A proposition to address overtourism and guide responsible tourism, happiness, well-being and sustainability in World Heritage sites and beyond. International Journal of Community Well-Being, 2(3-4), 359–371. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42413-019-00038-6
   Google Scholar
• Nalau, J., Becken, S., Schliephack, J., Parsons, M., Brown, C., & Mackey, B. (2018). The role of Indigenous and traditional knowledge in ecosystem-based adaptation: A review of the literature and case studies from the Pacific Islands. Weather, Climate, and Society, 10(4), 851–865. https://doi.org/10.1175/WCAS-D-18-0032.1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• New Zealand Government. (2019). How to pay the international visitor levy. Retrieved May 20, 2021, from https://www.govt.nz/browse/immigration-and-visas/visitor-visas-and-the-nzeta/how-to-pay-the-international-visitor-levy
   Google Scholar
• O’Brien, K. (2012). Global environmental change II: From adaptation to deliberate transformation. Progress in Human Geography, 36(5), 667–676. https://doi.org/10.1177/0309132511425767
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• OECD. (2021). Managing tourism development for sustainable and inclusive recovery. OECD. https://doi.org/10.1787/b062f603-en
   Google Scholar
• O’Neill, D. W., Fanning, A. L., Lamb, W. F., & Steinberger, J. K. (2018). A good life for all within planetary boundaries. Nature Sustainability, 1(2), 88–95. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-018-0021-4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ostrom, E. (1990). Governing the commons: The evolution of institutions for collective action. Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Ostrom, E. (2007). A diagnostic approach for going beyond panaceas. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 104(39), 15181–15187. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0702288104
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parsons, M., Brown, C., Nalau, J., & Fisher, K. (2018). Assessing adaptive capacity and adaptation: Insights from Samoan tourism operators. Climate and Development, 10(7), 644–663. https://doi.org/10.1080/17565529.2017.1410082
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pelling, M., O’Brien, K., & Matyas, D. (2015). Adaptation and transformation. Climatic Change, 133(1), 113–127. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-014-1303-0
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pollock, A. (2019). Regenerative tourism: The natural maturation of sustainability. LinkedIn, 2 October. Retrieved November 19, 2020, from https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/regenerative-tourism-natural-maturation-anna-pollock/?trackingId=vKRZutcionTRjYPBhfCxPg%3D%3D
   Google Scholar
• Raworth, K. (2017). Doughnut economics: 7 ways to think like a 21st century economist. Chelsea Green Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Regenvanu, R. (2009). The traditional economy as a source of resilience in Vanuatu. In T. Anderson & G. Lee (Eds.), In defence of Melanesian customary land (pp. 30–34). AID/WATCH.
   Google Scholar
• Reid, H. (2016). Ecosystem- and community-based adaptation: Learning from community-based natural resource management. Climate and Development, 8(1), 4–9. https://doi.org/10.1080/17565529.2015.1034233
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosengren, L. M., Raymond, C. M., Sell, M., & Vihinen, H. (2020). Identifying leverage points for strengthening adaptive capacity to climate change. Ecosystems and People, 16(1), 427–444. https://doi.org/10.1080/26395916.2020.1857439
   Google Scholar
• Savage, A., McIver, L., & Schubert, L. (2020). Review: the nexus of climate change, food and nutrition security and diet-related non-communicable diseases in Pacific Island Countries and Territories. Climate and Development, 12(2), 120–133.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scheyvens, R., & Momsen, J. H. (2008). Tourism and poverty reduction: Issues for small island states. Tourism Geographies, 10(1), 22–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616680701825115
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scheyvens, R., & Movono, A. (2020). Development in a world of disorder: Tourism, COVID-19 and the adaptivity of South Pacific people. Institute of Development Studies.
   Google Scholar
• Scheyvens, R., & Russell, M. (2012). Tourism and poverty alleviation in Fiji: Comparing the impacts of small- and large-scale tourism enterprises. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 20(3), 417–436. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2011.629049
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scott, D. (2021). Sustainable tourism and the grand challenge of climate change. Sustainability, 13(4), 1966. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13041966
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scott, D., & Gössling, S. (2018). Tourism and climate change mitigation embracing the Paris Agreement: Pathways to decarbonisation. European Travel Commission. Retrieved January 15, 2021, from https://etc-corporate.org/uploads/2019/03/ETC-Climate-Change-Report_FINAL.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Scott, D., Hall, C. M., & Gössling, S. (2019). Global tourism vulnerability to climate change. Annals of Tourism Research, 77, 49–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2019.05.007
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sedarati, P., Santos, S., & Pintassilgo, P. (2019). System dynamics in tourism planning and development. Tourism Planning & Development, 16(3), 256–280. https://doi.org/10.1080/21568316.2018.1436586
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sharpley, R. (2020). Tourism, sustainable development and the theoretical divide: 20 years on. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 28(11), 1932–1946. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2020.1779732
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, C. (2018a). Treasury living standards dashboard: Monitoring intergenerational wellbeing. Kōtātā Insight. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2020.1779732
   Google Scholar
• Smith, C. (2018b). Treasury living standards dashboard: Monitoring intergenerational wellbeing. Retrieved June 8, 2019, from https://treasury.govt.nz/sites/default/files/2018-06/smith-living-standardsdashboard-jun18.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Stefanova, M. (2008). The price of tourism: Land alienation in Vanuatu. Justice for the Poor Briefing Note, 2(1). World Bank, Washington, DC. Retrieved March 5, 2021, from https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/30541
   Google Scholar
• Steffen, W., Rockström, J., Richardson, K., Lenton, T. M., Folke, C., Liverman, D., Summerhayes, C. P., Barnosky, A. D., Cornell, S. E., Crucifix, M., Donges, J. F., Fetzer, I., Lade, S. J., Scheffer, M., Winkelmann, R., & Schellnhuber, H. J. (2018). Trajectories of the earth system in the anthropocene. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 115(33), 8252–8259. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1810141115
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stern, N. (2007). The economics of climate change: The stern review. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511817434
   Google Scholar
• Trau, A. M. (2012). Beyond pro-poor tourism: (Re)Interpreting tourism-based approaches to poverty alleviation in Vanuatu. Tourism Planning & Development, 9(2), 149–164. https://doi.org/10.1080/21568316.2011.630750
   Google Scholar
• Tribe, J. (2008). Tourism: A critical business. Journal of Travel Research, 46(3), 245–255. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287507304051
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• UN. (2020). COVID-19 and transforming tourism. Retrieved March 5, 2021, from https://www.un.org/sites/un2.un.org/files/sg_policy_brief_covid-19_tourism_august_2020.pdf
   Google Scholar
• UNWTO. (2019). Transforming tourism for climate action. Retrieved May 20, 2021, from https://www.unwto.org/sustainable-development/climate-change
   Google Scholar
• Vanuatu Sustainable Tourism Policy 2018–2030. (2019). Prepared by J. Spooner, L. Rakau, C. Addinsall & B. Weiler, Vanuatu Tourism Policy Project Team, Vanuatu.
   Google Scholar
• Walker, B., Holling, C. S., Carpenter, S. R., & Kinzig, A. (2004). Resilience, adaptability and transformability in social-ecological systems. Ecology and Society, 9(2), 5. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-00650-090205
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weaver, D. (2011). Can sustainable tourism survive climate change? Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 19(1), 5–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2010.536242
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weber, E. U. (2015). Climate change demands behavioral change: What are the challenges? Social Research, 82(3), 561–580.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WEF. (2018). The global risks 2018 (13th ed.). World Economic Forum.
   Google Scholar
• Westley, F., Carpenter, S. R., Brock, W. A., Holling, C. S., & Grunderson, L. H. (2002). Why systems of people and nature are not just social and ecological systems. In L. H. Grunderson & C. S. Holling (Eds.), Panarchy: Understanding transformations in human and natural systems (pp. 103–119). Island Press.
   Google Scholar
• Westoby, P. (2010). Dialogue and disentanglement: Navigating tensions for sustainable community economic development within Vanuatu. The International Journal of Environmental, Cultural, Economic, and Social Sustainability: Annual Review, 6(1), 81–92. https://doi.org/10.18848/1832-2077/CGP/v06i01/54728
   Google Scholar
• Westoby, R., Becken, S., & Laria, A. P. (2020). Perspectives on the human dimensions of coral restoration. Regional Environmental Change, 20(4), 109. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-020-01694-7
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• White, D. (1995). Application of systems thinking to risk management: A review of the literature. Management Decision, 33(10), 35–45. https://doi.org/10.1108/EUM0000000003918
   Google Scholar
• Wilbanks, T. J., & Kates, R. W. (1999). Global change in local places: How scale matters. Climatic Change, 43(3), 601–628. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005418924748
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WTTC. (2019). Insights from the climate & environment action forum. Retrieved March 5, 2021, from https://wttc.org/Portals/0/Documents/Reports/2019/Events-Insights%20from%20Climate%20Environment%20Action%20Forum-Sep%202019.pdf?ver=2021-02-25-182752-207
   Google Scholar
• WTTC. (2020a). To recovery & beyond: The future of travel & tourism in the wake of COVID-19. Retrieved March 5, 2021, from https://wttc.org/Research/To-Recovery-Beyond
   Google Scholar
• WTTC. (2020b). Vanuatu – 2020 annual research: Key highlights. Retrieved July 8, 2021, from https://wttc.org/Research/Economic-Impact
   Google Scholar