“We Write to Dismantle Prejudices, Myths and Lies”: The Role of Journalists in the COVID-19 Vaccination Campaign in Romania

References

• Allcott, H., and M. Gentzkow. 2017. “Social Media and Fake News in the 2016 Election.” Journal of Economic Perspectives 31 (2): 211–236. doi:10.1257/jep.31.2.211.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Avadani, I. 2021. “We Have Been Left Alone – How the Journalistic Profession Was Affected by the COVID-19 Epidemic in Romania.” In Ipostaze si etnografii ale carantinei in pandemie, edited by B. Iancu, A. Mihail, and M. Stroe, 171–188. Bucharest: ProUniversitaria.
   Google Scholar
• Bennett, W. L. 1990. “Toward a Theory of Press-State Relations in the United States.” Journal of Communication 40 (2): 103–127. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.1990.tb02265.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bennett, W. L. 1996. “An Introduction to Journalism Norms and Representations of Politics.” Political Communication 13: 373–384.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bennett, W. L. 2015. “Indexing Theory.” In The International Encyclopedia of Political Communication, edited by G. Mazzoleni, 1–5. New York: Wiley. doi:10.1002/9781118541555.wbiepc180.
   Google Scholar
• Bennett, W. L., R. G. Lawrence, and S. Livingston. 2007. When the Press Fails: Political Power and the News Media from Iraq to Katrina. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
   Google Scholar
• Boykoff, M. T., and J. M. Boykoff. 2004. “Balance as Bias: Global Warming and the US Prestige Press.” Global Environmental Change 14 (2): 125–136. doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2003.10.001.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brilli, Y., C. Lucifora, A. Russo, and M. Tonello. 2020. “Influenza Vaccination Behavior and Media Reporting of Adverse Events.” Health Policy 124 (12): 1403–1411. doi:10.1016/j.healthpol.2020.08.010.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Catalan-Matamoros, D., and C. Elías. 2020. “Vaccine Hesitancy in the Age of Coronavirus and Fake News: Analysis of Journalistic Sources in the Spanish Quality Press.” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17 (21): 8136. doi:10.3390/ijerph17218136.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chadwick, A., J. Kaiser, C. Vaccari, D. Freeman, S. Lambe, B. S. Loe, S. Vanderslott, et al. 2021. “Online Social Endorsement and Covid-19 Vaccine Hesitancy in the United Kingdom.” Social Media + Society 7 (2). doi:10.1177/20563051211008817.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Charmaz, K. 1996. “The Search for Meanings – Grounded Theory.” In Rethinking Methods in Psychology, edited by J. A. Smith, R. Harré, and L. Van Langenhove, 27–49. London: Sage Publications.
   Google Scholar
• Chen, W., and C. Stoecker. 2020. “Mass Media Coverage and Influenza Vaccine Uptake.” Vaccine 38 (2): 271–277. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2019.10.019.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chou, W.-Y. S., and A. Budenz. 2020. “Considering Emotion in COVID-19 Vaccine Communication: Addressing Vaccine Hesitancy and Fostering Vaccine Confidence.” Health Communication 35 (14): 1718–1722. doi:10.1080/10410236.2020.1838096.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chun Tie, Y., M. Birks, and K. Francis. 2019. “Grounded Theory Research: A Design Framework for Novice Researchers.” SAGE Open Medicine 7: 205031211882292. doi:10.1177/2050312118822927.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clarke, C. E., B. W. McKeever, A. Holton, and G. N. Dixon. 2015. “The Influence of Weight-of-Evidence Messages on (Vaccine) Attitudes: A Sequential Mediation Model.” Journal of Health Communication 20 (11): 1302–1309. doi:10.1080/10810730.2015.1023959.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coman, M. 2001. “The Media Landscape in Romania.” SEER: Journal for Labour and Social Affairs in Eastern Europe 4 (1): 173–186. http://www.jstor.org/stable/43292149.
   Google Scholar
• Craciun, C., and A. Baban. 2012. ““Who Will Take the Blame?”: Understanding the Reasons Why Romanian Mothers Decline HPV Vaccination for Their Daughters.” Vaccine 30 (48): 6789–6793. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2012.09.016.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Das, M. K., D. Singh, and S. Sharma. 2021. “Media News on Vaccines and Vaccination: The Content Profile, Sentiment and Trend of the Online Mass Media during 2015–2020 in India.” Clinical Epidemiology and Global Health 10: 100691. doi:10.1016/j.cegh.2020.100691.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DataReportal. 2021. Digital 2021 Romania. Accessed April 2, 2021. https://datareportal.com/reports/digital-2021-romania.
   Google Scholar
• Deuze, M. 2005. “What Is Journalism? Professional Identity and Ideology of Journalists Reconsidered.” Journalism 6 (4): 442–464. doi:10.1177/1464884905056815.
   Google Scholar
• Digi24. 2021. “Doua luni de la startul campaniei de vaccinare in Romania. Inca 156000 de persoane se pot inscrie de azi pentru imunizare.” [Two Months Since the Start of The Vaccination Campaign in Romania. Another 156,000 People Can Sign Up Today for Immunization]. Digi24.ro, February 27. https://www.digi24.ro/stiri/actualitate/sanatate/doua-luni-de-la-startul-campaniei-de-vaccinare-in-romania-inca-156-000-de-persoane-se-pot-inscrie-de-azi-pentru-imunizare-1459497.
   Google Scholar
• Dixon, G. N., and C. E. Clarke. 2013. “Heightening Uncertainty Around Certain Science.” Science Communication 35 (3): 358–382. doi:10.1177/1075547012458290.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fati, S. 2020. “Bani de la stat pentru presa: cum incalca Guvernul legea si de ce Antenele ar putea primi circa 2 milioane de euro.” [Public Money for the Press: How the Government Breaks the Law and Why Antena TV Could Receive About 2 million Euros.] Radio Europa Libera Romania, May 16. https://romania.europalibera.org/a/coronavirus-bani-de-la-stat-presă-antenele-ar-primi–2-milioane-de-euro/30619346.html.
   Google Scholar
• Freeman, D., F. Waite, L. Rosebrock, A. Petit, C. Causier, A. East, L. Jenner, et al. 2022. “Coronavirus Conspiracy Beliefs, Mistrust, and Compliance with Government Guidelines in England.” Psychological Medicine 52 (2): 251–263. doi:10.1017/S0033291720001890.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gehrau, V., S. Fujarski, H. Lorenz, C. Schieb, and B. Blöbaum. 2021. “The Impact of Health Information Exposure and Source Credibility on COVID-19 Vaccination Intention in Germany.” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18 (9): 4678. doi:10.3390/ijerph18094678.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hanitzsch, T., F. Hanusch, C. Mellado, M. Anikina, R. Berganza, I. Cangoz, M. Coman, et al. 2011. “Mapping Journalism Cultures across Nations.” Journalism Studies 12 (3): 273–293. doi:10.1080/1461670X.2010.512502.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holdis, D. 2019. Media Influence Matrix: Romania. Budapest: CEU Centre for Media, Data and Society (CMDS).
   Google Scholar
• Hwang, J. 2020. “Health Information Sources and the Influenza Vaccination: The Mediating Roles of Perceived Vaccine Efficacy and Safety.” Journal of Health Communication 25 (9): 727–735. doi:10.1080/10810730.2020.1840675.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• INSCOP Research. 2021. Perceptia publica asupra vaccinarii. Increderea romanilor in vaccinarea anti COVID-19 [Public Perception of Vaccination. Romanians’ Confidence In COVID-19 Vaccination]. February 8. https://www.inscop.ro/08-februarie-2021-perceptia-publica-asupra-vaccinarii-increderea-romanilor-in-vaccinarea-anti-covid19-capitolul-i/.
   Google Scholar
• IPSOS. 2021. Controverse si convingeri despre vaccinarea anti COVID-19 in Romania [Controversies and Beliefs about COVID-19 Vaccination in Romania]. February 18. https://www.ipsos.com/ro-ro/controverse-si-convingeri-despre-vaccinarea-anti-covid-19-romania.
   Google Scholar
• Klemm, C., E. Das, and T. Hartmann. 2019. “Changed Priorities Ahead: Journalists’ Shifting Role Perceptions When Covering Public Health Crises.” Journalism 20 (9): 1223–1241. doi:10.1177/14648849176928.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kline, K. N. 2011. “Popular Media and Health: Health Images and Effects.” In The Routledge Handbook of Health Communication, edited by T. L. Thompson, R. Parrott, and J. F. Nussbaum, 252–267. New York: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Lazić, A., and I. Žeželj. 2021. “A Systematic Review of Narrative Interventions: Lessons for Countering Anti-Vaccination Conspiracy Theories and Misinformation.” Public Understanding of Science 30: 644–670. doi:10.1177/09636625211011881.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leask, J., C. Hooker, and C. King. 2010. “Media Coverage of Health Issues and How to Work More Effectively with Journalists: A Qualitative Study.” BMC Public Health 10: 535. doi:10.1186/1471-2458-10-535.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lentzen, M. P., V. Huebenthal, R. Kaiser, M. Kreppel, J. E. Zoeller, and M. Zirk. 2022. “A Retrospective Analysis of Social Media Posts Pertaining to COVID-19 Vaccination Side Effects.” Vaccine 40 (1): 43–51. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2021.11.052.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Litvinenko, A., A. Borissova, and A. Smoliarova. 2022. “Politicization of Science Journalism: How Russian Journalists Covered the Covid-19 Pandemic.” Journalism Studies 23 (5-6): 687–702. doi:10.1080/1461670X.2021.2017791.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loomba, S., A. de Figueiredo, S. J. Piatek, K. de Graaf, and H. J. Larson. 2021. “Measuring the Impact of COVID-19 Vaccine Misinformation on Vaccination Intent in the UK and USA.” Nature Human Behaviour 5: 337–348. doi:10.1038/s41562-021-01056-1.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lupu, C. 2020. Raport: Starea mass-media in Romania [Report: The State of the Media in Romania]. Centrul pentru Jurnalism Independent. Accessed 29 March 2021. https://cji.ro/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/STUDIU-PRESA-2020_roBT-rev-01.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Márquez-Ramírez, M., C. Mellado, M. L. Humanes, A. Amado, D. Beck, S. Davydov, J. Mick, et al. 2020. “Detached or Interventionist? Comparing the Performance of Watchdog Journalism in Transitional, Advanced and Non-Democratic Countries.” The International Journal of Press/Politics 25 (1): 53–75. doi:10.1177/1940161219872155.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mascherini, M., and S. Nivakoski. 2022. “Social Media use and Vaccine Hesitancy in the European Union.” Vaccine 40 (14): 2215–2225. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2022.02.059.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meho, L. 2006. “E-mail Interviewing in Qualitative Research: A Methodological Discussion.” Journal of The American Society for Information Science and Technology 57 (10): 1284–1295. doi:10.1002/asi.20416.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mellado, C., M. Márquez-Ramírez, M. L. Humanes, A. Amado, C. Mothes, H. Silke, A. Stępińska, et al. 2020. “Mapping Professional Roles in News Content Across 18 Countries: A Descriptive Overview.” In Beyond Journalistic Norms: Role Performance and News in Comparative Perspective, edited by C. Mellado, 67–85. New York: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Mellado, C., and C. Mothes. 2020. “Measuring the Link Between Professional Role Conceptions, Perceived Role Enactment, and Journalistic Role Performance Across Countries.” In Beyond Journalistic Norms: Role Performance and News in Comparative Perspective, edited by C. Mellado, 147–167. New York: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Mitilian, E., F. Malli, and P. Verger. 2020. “Image of the new Vaccination Obligation Through the Media.” Vaccine 38 (3): 498–511. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2019.10.069.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mixich, V. 2008. “Romania si conspiratia HPV.” [Romania and the HPV Conspiracy.] Deutsche Welle, November 27. https://www.dw.com/ro/rom%C3%A2nia-%C5%9Fi-conspira%C5%A3ia-hpv/a-3825085.
   Google Scholar
• Mogos, A., T. Grapa, and T. Sandru. 2022. “Russian Disinformation in Eastern Europe. Vaccination Media Frames in ro.sputnik.md.” [Desinformación rusa en Europa del Este. Marcos mediáticos de la vacunación en ro.sputnik.md.]. Comunicar 30: 33–46. doi:10.3916/C72-2022-03.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muresanu Taut, M. 2019. “MMR Vaccine Representation in New Media, in Romania.” Philosophy, Social and Human Disciplines 2: 31–58. http://www.apshus.usv.ro/arhiva/2019II/APSHUSDec2019_31_58.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Muresanu Taut, M. 2020. “The European Discourse on Measles-Mumps-Rubella (MMR) Vaccination.” Romanian Journal of Sociological Studies 2: 141–156. https://journalofsociology.ro/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/07-Mihaela.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Nguyen, A., and D. Catalan-Matamoros. 2020. “Digital Mis/Disinformation and Public Engagement with Health and Science Controversies: Fresh Perspectives from Covid-19.” Media and Communication 8 (2): 323–328. doi:10.17645/mac.v8i2.3352.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Obae, P. 2021. “Bani pentru presa.15 milioane de euro de la Guvern pentru televiziuni. Intact, 5 milioane de euro. Pro TV - patru milioane. Cat au luat deja posturile TV?” [Money for the Press. 15 million Euros from the Government for Televisions. Intact, 5 million Euros. Pro TV – Four Million. How Much Have TV Stations Already Taken?] Pagina de Media, February 20. https://www.paginademedia.ro/2021/02/bani-pentru-presa-cat-au-luat-posturile-tv-guvern-intact-pro-tv/.
   Google Scholar
• Odone, A., V. Tramutola, M. Morgado, and C. Signorelli. 2018. “Immunization and Media Coverage in Italy: An Eleven-Year Analysis (2007–17).” Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics 14 (10): 2533–2536. doi:10.1080/21645515.2018.1486156.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paul, E., A. Steptoe, and D. Fancourt. 2021. “Attitudes Towards Vaccines and Intention to Vaccinate Against COVID-19: Implications for Public Health Communications.” The Lancet Regional Health - Europe 1: 100012. doi:10.1016/j.lanepe.2020.100012.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Penta, M. A., and A. Baban. 2014. “Mass Media Coverage of HPV Vaccination in Romania: A Content Analysis.” Health Education Research 29 (6): 977–992. doi:10.1093/her/cyu027.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Penta, M. A., and A. Baban. 2018. “Message Framing in Vaccine Communication: A Systematic Review of Published Literature.” Health Communication 33 (3): 299–314. doi:10.1080/10410236.2016.1266574.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petcu, M. 2020. Mass media din Romania dupa 30 de ani [Romanian Media After 30 Years]. Bucharest: Tritonic.
   Google Scholar
• Puri, N., E. A. Coomes, H. Haghbayan, and K. Gunaratne. 2020. “Social Media and Vaccine Hesitancy: New Updates for the Era of COVID-19 and Globalized Infectious Diseases.” Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics 16 (11): 2586–2593. doi:10.1080/21645515.2020.1780846.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Radu, R. 2021. “Digital News Report 2021 – Romania.” Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism. https://reutersinstitute.politics.ox.ac.uk/digital-news-report/2021/romania.
   Google Scholar
• Rini, R. 2017. “Fake News and Partisan Epistemology.” Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 27 (2): E-43–E-64. doi:10.1353/ken.2017.0025.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shah, U., M. R. Biswas, R. Ali, H. Ali, and Z. Shah. 2022. “Public Attitudes on Social Media Toward Vaccination Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic.” Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics. doi:10.1080/21645515.2022.2101835.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simione, L., M. Vagni, C. Gnagnarella, G. Bersani, and D. Pajardi. 2021. “Mistrust and Beliefs in Conspiracy Theories Differently Mediate the Effects of Psychological Factors on Propensity for COVID-19 Vaccine.” Frontiers in Psychology 12: 683684. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.683684.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, N., and T. Graham. 2019. “Mapping the Anti-Vaccination Movement on Facebook.” Information, Communication & Society 22 (9): 1310–1327. doi:10.1080/1369118X.2017.1418406.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stahl, J.-P., R. Cohen, F. Denis, J. Gaudelus, A. Martinot, T. Lery, and H. Lepetit. 2016. “The Impact of the Web and Social Networks on Vaccination. New Challenges and Opportunities Offered to Fight Against Vaccine Hesitancy.” Médecine et Maladies Infectieuses 46 (3): 117–122. doi:10.1016/j.medmal.2016.02.002.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tandoc, E. C., Jr., Z. W. Lim, and R. Ling. 2018. “Defining 'Fake News'.” Digital Journalism 6 (2): 137–153. doi:10.1080/21670811.2017.1360143.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tapalaga, D. 2020. “Ce nu veti auzi niciodata de la presa finantata de Guvernul Orban: Cum au capitalizat liberalii moguli care nu aveau nevoie sau nu merita ajutor.” [What You'll Never Hear from the Orban’s Government-Funded Press: How Liberals Capitalized on Moguls Who Didn't Need or Deserve Help]. G4Media June 20. https://www.g4media.ro/ce-nu-veti-auzi-niciodata-de-la-presa-finantata-de-guvernul-orban-cum-au-capitalizat-liberalii-moguli-care-nu-aveau-nevoie-sau-nu-merita-ajutor.html.
   Google Scholar
• van der Linden, S., J. Roozenbeek, and J. Compton. 2020. “Inoculating Against Fake News About COVID-19.” Frontiers in Psychology 11: 566790. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.566790.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Verger, P., and E. Dubé. 2020. “Restoring Confidence in Vaccines in the COVID-19 Era.” Expert Review of Vaccines 19 (11): 991–993. doi:10.1080/14760584.2020.1825945.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Volkman, J. E., K. L. Hokeness, C. R. Morse, A. Viens, and A. Dickie. 2021. “Information Source’s Influence on Vaccine Perceptions: An Exploration into Perceptions of Knowledge, Risk and Safety.” Journal of Communication in Healthcare 14 (1): 50–60. doi:10.1080/17538068.2020.1793288.
   Google Scholar
• Vraga, E. K., M. Tully, and L. Bode. 2020. “Empowering Users to Respond to Misinformation About Covid-19.” Media and Communication 8 (2): 475–479. doi:10.17645/mac.v8i2.3200.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang, Y., M. McKee, A. Torbica, and D. Stuckler. 2019. “Systematic Literature Review on the Spread of Health-Related Misinformation on Social Media.” Social Science & Medicine 240: 112552. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2019.112552.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wardle, C. 2017. “Fake News. It’s Complicated.” First Draft Footnotes, February 16. https://medium.com/1st-draft/fake-news-its-complicated-d0f773766c79.
   Google Scholar
• Wardle, C., and H. Derakhshan. 2017. “Information Disorder: Toward an Interdisciplinary Framework.” Council of Europe Report, October. https://edoc.coe.int/en/media/7495-information-disorder-toward-an-interdisciplinary-framework-for-research-and-policy-making.html.
   Google Scholar
• Warren, G. W., and R. Lofstedt. 2022. “COVID-19 Vaccine Rollout Management and Communication in Europe: One Year on.” Journal of Risk Research 25 (9): 1098–1117. doi:10.1080/13669877.2021.2001674.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WHO. 2014. Report of the Sage Working Group on Vaccine Hesitancy. https://www.who.int/immunization/sage/meetings/2014/october/1_Report_WORKING_GROUP_vaccine_hesitancy_final.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• WHO. 2019. Ten Threats to Global Health. https://www.who.int/news-room/spotlight/ten-threats-to-global-health-in-2019.
   Google Scholar
• WHO. 2020. Health Topics: Infodemic. https://www.who.int/health-topics/infodemic#tab=tab_1.
   Google Scholar
• WHO. 2021. COVID-19 Vaccines. https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/covid-19-vaccines.
   Google Scholar
• Wouters, O. J., K. C. Shadlen, M. Salcher-Konrad, A. J. Pollard, H. J. Larson, Y. Teerawattananon, and M. Jit. 2021. “Challenges in Ensuring Global Access to COVID-19 Vaccines: Production, Affordability, Allocation, and Deployment.” The Lancet 397: 1023–1034. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(21)00306-8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar