Two Journalisms? Linear and Curvilinear Relationships Between Journalists’ Role Ideals and Degree of Democracy

References

• Ajzen, I. 1991. “The Theory of Planned Behavior.” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 50 (2): 179–211. doi:10.1016/0749-5978(91)90020-T.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anikina, M., L. Frost, and T. Hanitzsch. 2017. Worlds of Journalism Studies Country Report: Journalists in Russia. https://epub.ub.uni-muenchen.de/35063/1/Country_report_Russia.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Bennett, W. L., R. G. Lawrence, and S. Livingston. 2007. When the Press Fails: Political Power and the News Media from Iraq to Katrina. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
   Google Scholar
• Chambers, S. 2003. “Deliberative Democratic Theory.” Annual Review of Political Science 6 (1): 307–326. doi:10.1146/annurev.polisci.6.121901.085538.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Christians, C. G., T. L. Glasser, D. McQuail, K. Nordenstreng, and R. A. White. 2009. Normative Theories of the Media: Journalism in Democratic Societies. Urbana, IL: Univerity of Illinois Press.
   Google Scholar
• Dahl, R. A. 2000. On Democracy. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Deuze, M. 2005. “What is Journalism? Professional Identity and Ideology of Journalists Reconsidered.” Journalism 6 (4): 442–464. doi:10.1177/1464884905056815.
   Google Scholar
• Donsbach, W., and B. Klett. 1993. “Subjective Objectivity: How Journalists in Four Countries Define a Key Term of Their Profession.” International Communication Gazette 51: 53–83. doi:10.1177/001654929305100104.
   Google Scholar
• The Economist Intelligence Unit. 2019. Democracy Index 2018: Me Too? Political Participation, Protest and Democracy. London: EIU.
   Google Scholar
• Fraley, C., and A. E. Raftery. 2007. “Model-Based Methods of Classification: Using the Mclust Software in Chemometrics.” Journal of Statistical Software 18 (6): 1–13. doi:10.18637/jss.v018.i06.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fröhlich, R., and C. Holtz-Bacha. 2003. “Journalism Education in Germany: A Wide Range of Different Ways.” In Journalism Education in Europe and North America, edited by R. Fröhlich and C. Holtz-Bacha, 187–205. Creskill, NJ: Hampton Press.
   Google Scholar
• Geise, S., U. Klinger, M. Magin, K. F. Müller, C. Nitsch, C. Riesmeyer, L. Rothenberger, et al. 2021. “The Normativity of Communication Research: A Content Analysis of Normative Claims in Peer-Reviewed Journal Articles (1970–2014).” Mass Communication and Society, 1–26. doi:10.1080/15205436.2021.1987474.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Giannone, D. 2010. “Political and Ideological Aspects in the Measurement of Democracy: The Freedom House Case.” Democratization 17 (1): 68–97. doi:10.1080/13510340903453716.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hamada, B. I. 2021. “Determinants of Journalists’ Autonomy and Safety: Evidence from the Worlds of Journalism Study.” Journalism Practice, 1–21. doi:10.1080/17512786.2021.1871861.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hanitzsch, T., F. Hanusch, J. Ramaprasad, and A. S. De Beer, eds. 2019. Worlds of Journalism: Journalistic Cultures Around the Globe. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hanitzsch, T., and T. P. Vos. 2017. “Journalistic Roles and the Struggle Over Institutional Identity: The Discursive Constitution of Journalism: Journalistic Roles and Institutional Identity.” Communication Theory 27 (2): 115–135. doi:10.1111/comt.12112.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hanitzsch, T., and T. P. Vos. 2018. “Journalism Beyond Democracy: A New Look into Journalistic Roles in Political and Everyday Life.” Journalism 19 (2): 146–164. doi:10.1177/1464884916673386.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnstone, J. W. C., E. J. Slawski, and W. W. Bowman. 1976. The News People: A Sociological Portrait of American Journalists and Their Work. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.
   Google Scholar
• Kepplinger, H. M., H.-B. Brosius, and J. F. Staab. 1991. “Instrumental Actualization: A Theory of Mediated Conflicts.” European Journal of Communication 6: 263–290. doi:10.1177/0267323191006003002.
   Google Scholar
• Köcher, R. 1986. “Bloodhounds or Missionaries: Role Definitions of German and British Journalists.” European Journal of Communication 1 (1): 43–64. doi:10.1177/0267323186001001004.
   Google Scholar
• Kreuter, F., S. Presser, and R. Tourangeau. 2008. “Social Desirability Bias in CATI, IVR, and Web Surveys: The Effects of Mode and Question Sensitivity.” Public Opinion Quarterly 72 (5): 847–865. doi:10.1093/poq/nfn063.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lazarsfeld, P. F., and R. K. Merton. 1957. “Mass Communication, Popular Taste and Organized Social Action.” In Mass Culture: The Popular Arts in America, edited by B. Rosenberg and D. M. White, 457–473. New York, NY: Free Press.
   Google Scholar
• Lijphart, A. 1999. Patterns of Democracy: Goverment Forms and Performance in Thirty-Six Countries. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Mainwaring, S., D. Brinks, and A. Pérez-Liñán. 2001. “Classifying Political Regimes in Latin.” Studies in Comparative International Development 36 (1): 37–65. doi:10.1007/BF02687584.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McNair, B. 2009. “Journalism and Democracy.” In The Handbook of Journalism Studies, edited by K. Wahl-Jorgensen and T. Hanitzsch, 237–249. New York, NY: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Mellado, C. 2015. “Professional Roles in News Content: Six Dimensions of Journalistic Role Performance.” Journalism Studies 16 (4): 596–614. doi:10.1080/1461670X.2014.922276.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mufti, M. 2018. “What Do We Know About Hybrid Regimes After Two Decades of Scholarship?” Politics and Governance 6 (2): 112–119. doi:10.17645/pag.v6i2.1400.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nerone, J. 2013. “The Historical Roots of the Normative Model of Journalism.” Journalism: Theory, Practice & Criticism 14 (4): 446–458. doi:10.1177/1464884912464177.
   Google Scholar
• Nielsen, R. K. 2017. “The One Thing Journalism Just Might Do for Democracy: Counterfactual Idealism, Liberal Optimism, Democratic Realism.” Journalism Studies 18 (10): 1251–1262. doi:10.1080/1461670X.2017.1338152.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ogan, C. L. 1982. “Development Journalism/Communication: The Status of the Concept.” Gazette 29 (1–2): 3–13. doi:10.1177/001654928202900101.
   Google Scholar
• Patterson, T. E., and W. Donsbach. 1996. “News Decisions: Journalists as Partisan Actors.” Political Communication 13 (4): 455–468. doi:10.1080/10584609.1996.9963131.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rantanen, T. 2017. “A ‘Crisscrossing’ Historical Analysis of Four Theories of the Press.” International Journal of Communication 11: 3454–3475. https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/6253/2120.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reich, Z., and T. Hanitzsch. 2013. “Determinants of Journalists’ Professional Autonomy: Individual and National Level Factors Matter More Than Organizational Ones.” Mass Communication and Society 16 (1): 133–156. doi:10.1080/15205436.2012.669002.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reporters without Borders. 2022. “Kremlin War of Aggression in Ukraine Is also War on Information.” RSF.Org, June 23. https://rsf.org/en/kremlin-war-aggression-ukraine-also-war-information.
   Google Scholar
• Schudson, M. 2001. “The Objectivity Norm in American Journalism.” Journalism 2: 149–170. doi:10.1177/146488490100200201.
   Google Scholar
• Shapiro, I. 2014. “Why Democracies Need a Functional Definition of Journalism Now More Than Ever.” Journalism Studies 15 (5): 555–565. doi:10.1080/1461670X.2014.882483.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shoemaker, P. J., and S. D. Reese. 2014. Mediating the Message in the 21st Century: A Media Sociology Perspective. 3rd ed.. New York, NY: Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.
   Google Scholar
• Siebert, F. S., T. Peterson, and W. Schramm. 1963. Four Theories of the Press: The Authoritarian, Libertarian, Social Responsibility, and Soviet Communist Concept of What the Press Should Be and Do. Urbana, IL: Univerity of Illinois Press.
   Google Scholar
• Standaert, O. 2022. “Beyond the Family Resemblance: Mapping the Normative Roles of Journalists Across Europe in the Early 2010s.” The International Journal of Press/Politics 27 (1): 58–75. doi:10.1177/1940161221994093.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Standaert, O., T. Hanitzsch, and J. Dedonder. 2021. “In Their Own Words: A Normative-Empirical Approach to Journalistic Roles Around the World.” Journalism 22 (4): 919–936. doi:10.1177/1464884919853183.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strömbäck, J. 2005. “In Search of a Standard: Four Models of Democracy and Their Normative Implications for Journalism.” Journalism Studies 6 (3): 331–345. doi:10.1080/14616700500131950.
   Google Scholar
• Tong, J. 2019. “The Taming of Critical Journalism in China: A Combination of Political, Economic and Technological Forces.” Journalism Studies 20 (1): 79–96. doi:10.1080/1461670X.2017.1375386.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Voltmer, K. 1999. Medienqualität und Demokratie: Eine empirische Analyse publizistischer Informations- und Orientierungsleistungen in der Wahlkampfkommunikation. Baden-Baden, DE: Nomos.
   Google Scholar
• Voltmer, K. 2013. The Media in Transitional Democracies. Cambridge: Polity.
   Google Scholar
• Weaver, D. H., L. Willnat, and G. C. Wilhoit. 2019. “The American Journalist in the Digital Age: Another Look at U.S. News People.” Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 96 (1): 101–130. doi:10.1177/1077699018778242.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Young, R. G. 1987. “Not This Way, Please! Regulating the Press in Nazi Germany.” Journalism Quarterly 64: 787–792. doi:10.1177/107769908706400416.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zelizer, B. 2013. “On the Shelf Life of Democracy in Journalism Scholarship.” Journalism 14 (4): 459–473. doi:10.1177/1464884912464179.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar