DRD4 7-repeat polymorphism moderates the association between maternal unresolved loss or trauma and infant disorganization

References

• Abrams , K. , Rifkin , A. and Hesse , E. 2006 . Examining the role of parental frightened/frightening subtypes in predicting disorganized attachment within a brief observation procedure . Development and Psychopathology , 18 : 345 – 361 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Achenbach , T. M. 1992 . Manual for the Child Behavior Checklist/2 – 3 , Burlington, VT : University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry .
   Google Scholar
• Ainsworth , M. D. S. , Bell , S. M. and Stayton , D. J. 1974 . “ Infant – mother attachment and social development: Socialization as a product of reciprocal responsiveness to signals ” . In The integration of a child into a social world , Edited by: Richards , M. P. M. 99 – 135 . London : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Ainsworth , M. , Blehar , M. , Waters , E. and Wall , S. 1978 . Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation , Hillsdale, NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum .
   Google Scholar
• Ainsworth , M. D. S. and Eichberg , C. G. 1991 . “ Effects on infant – mother attachment of mother's unresolved loss of an attachment figure or other traumatic experience ” . In Attachment across the life cycle , Edited by: Parkes , C. M. , Stevenson-Hinde , J. and Marris , P. 160 – 183 . London : Routledge .
   Google Scholar
• Bakermans-Kranenburg , M. J. , Schuengel , C. and Van IJzendoorn , M. H. 1999 . Unresolved loss due to miscarriage: An addition to the Adult Attachment Interview . Attachment and Human Development , 1 : 157 – 170 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bakermans-Kranenburg , M. J. and Van IJzendoorn , M. H. 1993 . A psychometric study of the Adult Attachment Interview: Reliability and discriminant validity . Developmental Psychology , 29 : 870 – 880 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bakermans-Kranenburg , M. J. and Van IJzendoorn , M. H. 2004 . No association of the dopamine D4 receptor (DRD4) and -521 C/T promoter polymorphisms with infant attachment disorganization . Attachment and Human Development , 6 : 211 – 218 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bakermans-Kranenburg , M. J. and Van IJzendoorn , M. H. 2006 . Gene – environment interaction of the Dopamine D4 receptor (DRD4) and observed maternal insensitivity predicting externalizing behavior in preschoolers . Developmental Psychobiology , 48 : 406 – 409 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bakermans-Kranenburg , M. J. and Van IJzendoorn , M. H. “ Disorganized attachments from the perspective of behavioral and molecular genetics ” . In Attachment disorganization , (2nd ed.) , Edited by: Solomon , J. and George , C. New York : Guilford . in press
   Google Scholar
• Belsky , J. 1997 . Theory testing, effect-size evaluation, and differential susceptibility to rearing influences: The case of mothering and attachment . Child Development , 68 : 598 – 600 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Belsky , J. 2005 . “ The developmental and evolutionary psychology of intergenerational transmission of attachment ” . In Attachment and bonding: A new synthesis , Edited by: Carter , C. S. and Ahnert , L. 169 – 198 . Cambridge, MA : MIT Press .
   Google Scholar
• Benjamin , J. , Ebstein , R. P. and Belmaker , R. H. , eds. 2002 . Molecular genetics and the human personality , Washington, DC : American Psychiatric Publishing Inc. .
   Google Scholar
• Bennett , A. J. , Lesch , K. P. , Heils , A. , Long , J. G. , Lorenz , J. G. Shoaf , S. E. 2002 . Early experience and serotonin transporter gene variation interact to influence primate CNS function . Molecular Psychiatry , 7 : 118 – 122 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bokhorst , C. L. , Bakermans-Kranenburg , M. J. , Fearon , P. , van IJzendoorn , M. H. , Fonagy , P. and Schuengel , C. 2003 . The importance of shared environment in mother – infant attachment security: A behavioral genetic study . Child Development , 74 : 1769 – 1782 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caspi , A. , McClay , J. , Moffitt , T. E. , Mill , J. , Martin , J. Craig , I. W. 2002 . Role of genotype in the cycle of violence in maltreated children . Science , 297 : 851 – 854 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caspi , A. , Sugden , K. , Moffitt , T. E. , Taylor , A. , Craig , I. W. Harrington , H. 2003 . Influence of life stress on depression: Moderation by a polymorphism in the 5-HTT gene . Science , 301 : 386 – 389 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Colhoun , H. M. , McKeigue , P. M. and Smith , G. D. 2003 . Problems of reporting genetic associations with complex outcomes . Lancet , 361 : 865 – 872 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crowell , J. A. , Waters , E. , Treboux , D. , O'Connor , E. , Colon-Downs , C. Feider , O. 1996 . Discriminant validity of the adult attachment interview . Child Development , 67 : 2584 – 2599 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eaves , L. J. , Silberg , J. L. and Erkanli , A. 2003 . Resolving multiple epigenetic pathways to adolescent depression . Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry , 44 : 1006 – 1014 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ebstein , R. P. , Benjamin , J. and Belmaker , R. H. 2002 . “ Behavioral genetics, genomics, and personality ” . In Behavioral genetics in the postgenomic era , Edited by: Plomin , R. , DeFries , J. C. , Craig , I. W. and McGuffin , P. 365 – 388 . Washington, DC : American Psychological Association .
   Google Scholar
• Ebstein , R. P. , Levine , J. , Geller , V. , Auerbach , J. , Gritsenko , I. and Belmaker , R. H. 1998 . Dopamine D4 receptor and serotonin transporter promoter in the determination of neonatal temperament . Molecular Psychiatry , 3 : 238 – 246 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fonagy , P. and Target , M. 2005 . Bridging the transmission gap: An end to an important mystery of attachment research? . Attachment and Human Development , 7 : 333 – 344 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fox , N. A. , Nichols , K. E. , Henderson , H. A. , Rubin , K. , Schmidt , L. Hamer , D. 2005 . Evidence for a gene – environment interaction in predicting behavioral inhibition in middle childhood . Psychological Science , 16 : 921 – 926 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• George , C. , Kaplan , N. and Main , M. 1996 . Adult Attachment Interview , (3rd ed.) , Unpublished manuscript, University of California at Berkeley .
   Google Scholar
• Gervai , J. , Nemoda , Z. , Lakatos , K. , Ronai , Z. , Toth , I. Ney , K. 2005 . Transmission disequilibrium tests confirm the link between DRD4 gene polymorphism and infant attachment . American Journal of Medical Genetics B. Neuropsychiatric Genetics , 132B : 126 – 130 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldberg , S. , Benoit , D. , Blokland , K. and Madigan , S. 2003 . Atypical maternal behavior, maternal representations and infant disorganized attachment . Development and Psychopathology , 15 : 239 – 257 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grienenberger , J. , Kelly , K. and Slade , A. 2005 . Maternal reflective functioning, mother – infant affective communication, and infant attachment: Exploring the link between mental states of observed caregiving behavior in the intergenerational transmission of attachment . Attachment and Human Development , 7 : 299 – 311 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hesse , E. 1999 . “ The Adult Attachment Interview: Historical and current perspectives ” . In Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical implications , Edited by: Cassidy , J. and Shaver , P. R. 395 – 433 . New York : Guilford .
   Google Scholar
• Hesse , E. and Main , M. 2000 . Disorganized infant, child, and adult attachment: Collapse in behavioral and attentional strategies . Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association , 48 : 1097 – 1127 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hesse , E. and Main , M. 2006 . Frightened, threatening, and dissociative (FR) parental behavior as related to infant D attachment in low-risk samples: Description, discussion, and interpretations . Development and Psychopathology , 18 : 309 – 343 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacobvitz , D. , Leon , K. and Hazen , N. 2006 . Does expectant mothers' unresolved trauma predict frightening maternal behavior? Risk and protective factors . Development and Psychopathology , 18 : 363 – 379 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jaffee , S. R. , Caspi , A. , Moffitt , T. E. , Dodge , K. A. , Rutter , M. Taylor , A. 2005 . Nature × nurture: Genetic vulnerabilities interact with child maltreatment to promote behaviour problems . Development and Psychopathology , 17 : 67 – 84 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaufman , J. , Yang , B. Z. , Douglas-Palumberi , H. , Houshyar , S. , Lipschitz , D. Krystal , J. H. 2004 . Social supports and serotonin transporter gene moderate depression in maltreated children . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA , 101 : 17316 – 17421 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim-Cohen , J. , Caspi , A. , Taylor , A. , Williams , B. , Newcombe , R. Craig , I. W. 2006 . MAOA, maltreatment, and gene – environment interaction predicting children's mental health: New evidence and a meta-analysis . Molecular Psychiatry , 11 : 903 – 913 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lakatos , K. , Nemoda , Z. , Toth , I. , Ronai , Z. , Ney , K. Sasvari-Szekely , M. 2002 . Further evidence for the role of the dopamine D4 receptor (DRD4) gene in attachment disorganization: Interaction of the exon III 48-bp repeat and the −521 C/T promoter polymorphisms . Molecular Psychiatry , 7 : 27 – 31 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lakatos , K. , Toth , I. , Nemoda , Z. , Ney , K. , Sasvari-Szekely , M. and Gervai , J. 2000 . Dopamine D4 receptor (DRD4) gene polymorphism is associated with attachment disorganization in infants . Molecular Psychiatry , 5 : 633 – 637 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luan , J. A. , Wong , M. Y. , Day , N. E. and Wareham , N. J. 2001 . Sample size determination for studies of gene – environment interaction . International Journal of Epidemiology , 30 : 1035 – 1040 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lyons-Ruth , K. , Bronfman , E. and Parsons , E. 1999 . Maternal frightened, frightening, or atypical behavior and disorganized infant attachment patterns . Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development , 64 : 67 – 96 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lyons-Ruth , K. and Jacobvitz , D. 1999 . “ Attachment disorganization: Unresolved loss, relational violence, and lapses in behavioral and attentional strategies ” . In Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications , Edited by: Cassidy , J. and Shaver , P. R. 520 – 554 . New York : Guilford .
   Google Scholar
• Madigan , S. , Bakermans-Kranenburg , M. J. , Van IJzendoorn , M. H. , Moran , G. , Pederson , D. R. and Benoit , D. 2006 . Unresolved states of mind, anomalous parental behavior, and disorganized attachment: A review and meta-analysis of a transmission gap . Attachment and Human Development , 8 : 89 – 111 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Madigan , S. , Moran , G. and Pederson , D. R. 2006 . Unresolved states of mind, disorganized attachment relationships, and disrupted mother – infant interactions of adolescent mothers and their infants . Developmental Psychology , 42 : 293 – 304 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Main , M. 1990 . Cross-cultural studies of attachment organization: Recent studies, changing methodologies, and the concept of conditional strategies . Human Development , 33 : 48 – 61 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Main , M. 1999 . “ Epilogue. Attachment theory: Eighteen points with suggestions for future studies ” . In Handbook of attachment. Theory, research, and clinical applications , Edited by: Cassidy , J. and Shaver , P. R. 845 – 887 . New York : Guilford .
   Google Scholar
• Main , M. and Goldwyn , R. 1984 – 1998 . Adult attachment scoring and classification system , Berkeley : Unpublished scoring manual, Department of Psychology, University of California .
   Google Scholar
• Main , M. and Hesse , E. 1990 . “ Parents' unresolved traumatic experiences are related to infant disorganized attachment status: Is frightened and/or frightening parental behavior the linking mechanism? ” . In Attachment in the preschool years: Theory, research, and intervention , Edited by: Greenberg , M. T. , Cicchetti , D. and Cummings , E. M. 161 – 182 . Chicago : University of Chicago Press .
   Google Scholar
• Main , M. and Hesse , E. 1992/1995 . Frightening, frightened, timid/deferential, dissociated, or disorganized behavior on the part of the parent: Coding system , Unpublished manual, University of California at Berkeley .
   Google Scholar
• Main , M. , Kaplan , N. and Cassidy , J. 1985 . Security in infancy, childhood, and adulthood: A move to the level of representation . Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development , 50 : 66 – 104 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Main , M. and Solomon , J. 1990 . “ Procedures for identifying infants as disorganized/disoriented during the Ainsworth Strange Situation ” . In Attachment in the preschool years: Theory, research, and intervention. The John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation series on mental health and development , Edited by: Greenberg , M. T. , Cicchetti , D. and Cummings , E. M. 121 – 160 . Chicago, IL : University of Chicago Press .
   Google Scholar
• Michel , G. F. and Moore , C. L. 1995 . Developmental psychobiology. An interdisciplinary science , Cambridge, MA : MIT .
   Google Scholar
• Moffitt , T. E. 2005 . The new look of behavioral genetics in developmental psychopathology: Gene – environment interplay in antisocial behaviors . Psychological Bulletin , 131 : 533 – 554 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moffitt , T. E. , Caspi , A. and Rutter , M. 2005 . Strategy for investigating interactions between measured genes and measured environments . Archives of General Psychiatry , 62 : 473 – 481 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Okuyama , Y. , Ishiguro , H. , Toru , M. and Arinami , T. 1999 . A genetic polymorphism in the promoter region of DRD4 associated with expression and schizophrenia . Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications , 258 : 292 – 295 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Plomin , R. , DeFries , J. C. , McClearn , G. E. and McGuffin , P. 2001 . Behavior genetics , New York : Worth Publishers .
   Google Scholar
• Robbins , T. W. and Everitt , B. J. 1999 . “ Motivation and reward ” . In Fundamental neuroscience , Edited by: Zigmond , M. J. , Bloom , F. E. , Landis , S. C. and Roberts , J. L. 1246 – 1260 . San Diego : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Rutter , M. 2000 . Psychosocial influences: Critiques, findings, and research needs . Development and Psychopathology , 12 : 375 – 406 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rutter , M. 2003 . Commentary. Nature – nurture interplay in emotional disorders . Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry , 44 : 934 – 944 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rutter , M. 2006 . Genes and behavior. Nature – nurture interplay explained , Oxford : Blackwell .
   Google Scholar
• Rutter , M. , Pickles , A. , Murray , R. and Eaves , L. 2001 . Testing hypotheses on specific environmental causal effects on behavior . Psychological Bulletin , 127 : 291 – 324 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sagi , A. , Van IJzendoorn , M. H. , Scharf , M. and Koren-Karie , N. 1994 . Stability and discriminant validity of the Adult Attachment Interview: A psychometric study in young Israeli adults . Developmental Psychology , 30 : 771 – 777 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schechter , D. , Coots , T. , Zeanah , C. , Davies , M. , Coates , S. Trabka , K. 2005 . Maternal mental representations of the child in an inner-city clinical sample: Violence-related posttraumatic stress and reflective functioning . Attachment and Human Development , 7 : 313 – 331 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmidt , L. A. , Fox , N. A. , Rubin , K. H. , Hu , S. and Hamer , D. H. 2002 . Molecular genetics of shyness and aggression in preschoolers . Personality and Individual Differences , 33 : 227 – 238 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schuengel , C. , Bakermans-Kranenburg , M. J. and Van IJzendoorn , M. H. 1999 . Frightening maternal behavior linking unresolved loss and disorganized attachment . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 67 : 54 – 63 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Slade , A. , Grienenberger , J. , Bernbach , E. , Levy , D. and Locker , A. 2005 . Maternal reflective functioning, attachment, and the transmission gap: A preliminary study . Attachment and Human Development , 7 : 283 – 298 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spangler , G. , Fremmer-Bombik , E. and Grossmann , K. 1996 . Social and individual determinants of infant attachment security and disorganization . Infant Mental Health Journal , 17 : 127 – 139 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suomi , S. J. 1999 . “ Attachment in rhesus monkeys ” . In Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications , Edited by: Cassidy , J. and Shaver , P. R. 181 – 197 . New York : Guilford .
   Google Scholar
• True , M. , Pisani , L. and Oumar , F. 2001 . Infant – mother attachment among the Dogon of Mali . Child Development , 72 : 1451 – 1466 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van IJzendoorn , M. H. 1995 . Adult attachment representations, parental responsiveness, and infant attachment: A meta-analysis on the predictive validity of the Adult Attachment Interview . Psychological Bulletin , 117 : 387 – 403 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van IJzendoorn , M. H. , Schuengel , C. and Bakermans-Kranenburg , M. 1999 . Disorganized attachment in early childhood: Meta-analysis of precursors, concomitants, and sequelae . Development and Psychopathology , 11 : 225 – 250 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wong , M. Y. , Day , N. E. , Luan , J. A. , Chan , K. P. and Wareham , N. J. 2003 . The detection of gene – environment interaction for continuous traits: Should we deal with measurement error by bigger studies or better measurement? . International Journal of Epidemiology , 32 : 51 – 57 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zeijlmans van Emmichoven , I. A. , Van IJzendoorn , M. H. , De Ruiter , C. and Brosschot , J. F. 2003 . Selective processing of threatening information: Effects of attachment representation and anxiety disorder on attention and memory . Development & Psychopathology , 15 : 219 – 237 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar