849
Views
13
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Original Articles

Longitudinal pathways from early maternal depression to children’s dysregulated representations: a moderated mediation analysis of harsh parenting and gender

, , &
Pages 46-68 | Received 01 Jul 2015, Accepted 19 Oct 2015, Published online: 25 Nov 2015

References

  • Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation. Oxford: Lawrence Erlbaum.
  • Barnett, M. A., & Scaramella, L. V. (2013). Mothers’ parenting and child sex differences in behavior problems among African American preschoolers. Journal of Family Psychology, 27(5), 773–783. doi:10.1037/a0033792
  • Bascoe, S. M., Davies, P. T., Sturge-Apple, M. L., & Cummings, E. M. (2009). Children’s representations of family relationships, peer information processing, and school adjustment. Developmental Psychology, 45(6), 1740–1751. doi:10.1037/a0016688
  • Blandon, A. Y., Calkins, S. D., Keane, S. P., & O’Brien, M. (2008). Individual differences in trajectories of emotion regulation processes: The effects of maternal depressive symptomatology and children’s physiological regulation. Developmental Psychology, 44(4), 1110–1123. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.44.4.1110
  • Blatt-Eisengart, I., Drabick, D. A. G., Monahan, K. C., & Steinberg, L. (2009). Sex differences in the longitudinal relations among family risk factors and childhood externalizing symptoms. Developmental Psychology, 45(2), 491–502. doi:10.1037/a0014942
  • Booth-LaForce, C., & Oxford, M. L. (2008). Trajectories of social withdrawal from grades 1 to 6: Prediction from early parenting, attachment, and temperament. Developmental Psychology, 44(5), 1298–1313. doi:10.1037/a0012954
  • Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and loss (Volume 1): Attachment. New York, NY: Basic Books.
  • Brady-Smith, C., Fauth, R. C., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2005). Background and psychometric information for the child-parent interaction rating scales for the Three-Bag assessment: 14-, 24-, and 36-month waves ( Unpublished scales). National Center for Children and Families, Teachers College, Columbia University.
  • Bretherton, I. (1985). Attachment theory: Retrospect and prospect. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 50, 3–35. doi:10.2307/3333824
  • Bretherton, I., Oppenheim, D., Buchsbaum, H., Emde, R. N., & the MacArthur Narrative Working Group. (1990). The MacArthur Story Stem Battery ( Unpublished manuscript). University of Wisconsin-Madison (published 2003 in In R. N. Emde, D. P. Wolf, & D. Oppenheim (Eds.), Revealing the inner worlds of young children: The MacArthur Story Stem Battery and parent-child narratives (pp. 381–396). New York: Oxford University Press.
  • Brody, L. R., & Hall, J. A. (1993). Gender and emotion. In M. Lewis & J. M. Haviland (Eds.), Handbook of emotions (pp. 447–460). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
  • Buckner, J., & Fivush, R. (1998). Gender and self in children’s autobiographical narratives. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 12, 407–429. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099-0720(199808)12:4<407::AID-ACP575>3.0.CO;2-7
  • Buss, A. H., & Plomin, R. (1984). Temperament: Early developing personality traits. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
  • Caldwell, B., & Bradley, R. (1984). Home observation for measurement of the environment: Administration manual, revised edition ( Unpublished manuscript). University of Arkansas, Little Rock, AR.
  • Campbell, S. B., Pierce, E. W., Moore, G., Marakovitz, S., & Newby, K. (1996). Boys’ externalizing problems at elementary school age: Pathways from early behavior problems, maternal control, and family stress. Development and Psychopathology, 8(4), 701–719. doi:10.1017/S0954579400007379
  • Chang, L., Schwartz, D., Dodge, K. A., & McBride-Chang, C. (2003). Harsh parenting in relation to child emotion regulation and aggression. Journal of Family Psychology, 17(4), 598–606. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.17.4.598
  • Connell, A. M., & Goodman, S. H. (2002). The association between psychopathology in fathers versus mothers and children’s internalizing and externalizing behavior problems: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 128(5), 746–773. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.128.5.746
  • Cummings, E. M., George, M. R. W., Koss, K. J., & Davies, P. T. (2013). Parental depressive symptoms and adolescent adjustment: Responses to children’s distress and representations of attachment as explanatory mechanisms. Parenting: Science and Practice, 13(4), 213–232. doi:10.1080/15295192.2013.832568
  • Denham, S. A., Workman, E., Cole, P. M., Weissbrod, C., Kendziora, K. T., & Zahn-Waxler, C. (2000). Prediction of externalizing behavior problems from early to middle childhood: The role of parental socialization and emotion expression. Development and Psychopathology, 12, 23–45. doi:10.1017/S0954579400001024
  • Dix, T., & Meunier, L. N. (2009). Depressive symptoms and parenting competence: An analysis of 13 regulatory processes. Developmental Review, 29(1), 45–68. doi:10.1016/j.dr.2008.11.002
  • Downey, G., & Coyne, J. C. (1990). Children of depressed parents: An integrative review. Psychological Bulletin, 108(1), 50–76. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.108.1.50
  • Dubowitz, H., Feigelman, S., Lane, W., Prescott, L., Blackman, K., Grube, L., … Tracy, J. K. (2007). Screening for depression in an urban pediatric primary care clinic. Pediatrics, 119(3), 435–443. doi:10.1542/peds.2006-2010
  • Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., Shepard, S. A., Guthrie, I. K., Murphy, B. C., & Reiser, M. (1999). Parental reactions to children’s negative emotions: Longitudinal relations to quality of children’s social functioning. Child Development, 70(2), 513–534. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00037
  • Eisenberg, N., Gershoff, E. T., Fabes, R. A., Shepard, S. A., Cumberland, A. J., Losoya, S. H., … Murphy, B. C. (2001). Mothers’ emotional expressivity and children’s behavior problems and social competence: Mediation through children’s regulation. Developmental Psychology, 37, 475–490. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.37.4.475
  • Elgar, F. J., Mills, R. S. L., McGrath, P. J., Waschbusch, D. A., & Brownridge, D. A. (2007). Maternal and paternal depressive symptoms and child maladjustment: The mediating role of parental behavior. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35(6), 943–955. doi:10.1007/s10802-007-9145-0
  • Else-Quest, N., Hyde, J. S., Goldsmith, H. H., & Van Hulle, C. A. (2006). Gender differences in temperament: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 132(1), 33–72. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.1.33
  • Erickson, M. F., Sroufe, L. A., & Egeland, B. (1985). The relationship between quality of attachment and behavior problems in preschool in a high-risk sample. In I. Bretherton & E. Waters (Eds.), Growing points in attachment theory and research (pp. 147–166). Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 50(1/2). Wiley: on behalf of the Society for Research in Child Development.
  • Faldowski, R. A., Chazan‐Cohen, R., Love, J. M., & Vogel, C. (2013). What makes a difference: Early head start evaluation findings in a developmental context: II. Design and methods in the early head start study. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 78(1), 20–35. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5834.2012.00701.x
  • Fivush, R., Brotman, M. A., Buckner, J. P., & Goodman, S. H. (2000). Gender differences in parent–child emotion narratives. Sex Roles, 42(3/4), 233–253. doi:10.1023/A:1007091207068
  • Gershoff, E. T. (2002). Corporal punishment by parents and associated child behaviors and experiences: A meta-analytic and theoretical review. Psychological Bulletin, 128, 539–579. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.128.4.539
  • Goodman, S. H., Rouse, M. H., Connell, A. M., Broth, M. R., Hall, C. M., & Heyward, D. (2011). Maternal depression and child psychopathology: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 14(1), 1–27. doi:10.1007/s10567-010-0080-1
  • Gross, H. E., Shaw, D. S., & Moilanen, K. L. (2008). Reciprocal associations between boys’ externalizing problems and mothers’ depressive symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36(5), 693–709. doi:10.1007/s10802-008-9224-x
  • Hair, J. F., Black, W., Babin, B., & Anderson, R. E. (2009). Multivariate data analysis (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/ Prentice Hall.
  • Hay, D. F., Pawlby, S., Sharp, D., Asten, P., Mills, A., & Kumar, R. (2001). Intellectual problems shown by 11-year-old children whose mothers had postnatal depression. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 42(7), 871–889. doi:10.1111/1469-7610.00784
  • Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6, 1–55. doi:10.1080/10705519909540118
  • Kelly, K. R. (2015). Insecure attachment representations and child personal narrative structure: Implications for delayed discourse in preschool-age children. Attachment & Human Development, 17(5), 448–471. doi:10.1080/14616734.2015.1076011
  • Kerr, D. C. R., Lopez, N. L., Olson, S. L., & Sameroff, A. J. (2004). Parental discipline and externalizing behavior problems in early childhood: The roles of moral regulation and child gender. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 32(4), 369–383. doi:10.1023/B:JACP.0000030291.72775.96
  • Kim, H., Arnold, D. H., Fisher, P. H., & Zeljo, A. (2005). Parenting and preschoolers’ symptoms as a function of child gender and SES. Child & Family Behavior Therapy, 27(2), 23–41. doi:10.1300/J019v27n02_03
  • Kim, H. K., Pears, K. C., Fisher, P. A., Connelly, C. D., & Landsverk, J. A. (2010). Trajectories of maternal harsh parenting in the first 3 years of life. Child Abuse & Neglect, 34(12), 897–906. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2010.06.002
  • Klimes-Dougan, B., Brand, A. E., Zahn-Waxler, C., Usher, B., Hastings, P. D., Kendziora, K., & Garside, R. B. (2007). Parental emotion socialization in adolescence: Differences in sex, age and problem status. Social Development, 16(2), 326–342. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9507.2007.00387.x
  • Kochanska, G., & Coy, K. C. (2002). Child emotionality and maternal responsiveness as predictors of reunion behaviors in the strange situation: Links mediated and unmediated by separation distress. Child Development, 73(1), 228–240. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00402
  • Kopp, C. B. (1982). Antecedents of self-regulation: A developmental perspective. Developmental Psychology, 18(2), 199–214. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.18.2.199
  • Leinonen, J. A., Solantaus, T. S., & Punamaki, R. (2003). Parental mental health and children’s adjustment: The quality of marital interaction and parenting as mediating factors. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 44(2), 227–241. doi:10.1111/1469-7610.t01-1-00116
  • Lewinsohn, P. M., Solomon, A., Seeley, J. R., & Zeiss, A. (2000). Clinical implications of “subthreshold” depressive symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109(2), 345–351. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.109.2.345
  • Love, J. M., Kisker, E. E., Ross, C., Raikes, H., Constantine, J., Boller, K., … Vogel, C. (2005). The effectiveness of Early Head Start for 3-year-old children and their parents: Lessons for policy and programs. Developmental Psychology, 41(6), 885–901. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.41.6.885
  • Lovejoy, M. C., Graczyk, P. A., O’Hare, E., & Neuman, G. (2000). Maternal depression and parenting behavior: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 20(5), 561–592. doi:10.1016/S0272-7358(98)00100-7
  • Lyons-Ruth, K., & Jacobvitz, D. (1999). Attachment disorganization: Unresolved loss, relational violence, and lapses in behavioral and attentional strategies. In J. Cassidy & P. R. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (pp. 520–554). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
  • Maccoby, E. E., & Martin, J. A. (1983). Socialization in the context of the family: Parent-child interaction. In P. H. Mussen (Series Ed.) & E. M. Hetherington (Vol. Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Socialization, personality, and social development (4th ed., pp. 1–101). New York, NY: Wiley.
  • Macfie, J., Cicchetti, D., & Toth, S. L. (2001a). The development of dissociation in maltreated preschool-aged children. Development and Psychopathology, 13(2), 233–254. doi:10.1017/S0954579401002036
  • Macfie, J., Cicchetti, D., & Toth, S. L. (2001b). Dissociation in maltreated versus nonmaltreated preschool aged children. Child Abuse & Neglect, 25(9), 1253–1267. doi:10.1016/S0145-2134(01)00266-6
  • MacKinnon, D. P. (2008). Introduction to statistical mediation analysis. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
  • MacKinnon, D. P., Fairchild, A. J., & Fritz, M. S. (2007). Mediation analysis. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 593–614. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085542
  • Matthews, J. S., Ponitz, C. C., & Morrison, F. J. (2009). Early gender differences in self-regulation and academic achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101(3), 689–704. doi:10.1037/a0014240
  • McCauley, E., Kendall, K., & Pavlidis, K. (1995). The development of emotional regulation and emotional response. In I. M. Goodyer (Ed.), The depressed child and adolescent: Developmental and clinical perspectives (pp. 53–80). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
  • McLennan, J. D., Kotelchuck, M., & Cho, H. (2001). Prevalence, persistence, and correlates of depressive symptoms in a national sample of mothers of toddlers. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 40(11), 1316–1323. doi:10.1097/00004583-200111000-00012
  • Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998–2012). Mplus user’s guide (7th ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén.
  • Nomura, Y., Wickramaratne, P. J., Warner, V. M. P. H., Mufson, L., & Weissman, M. M. (2002). Family discord, parental depression, and psychopathology in offspring: Ten-year follow-up. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 41(4), 402–409. doi:10.1097/00004583-200204000-00012
  • Oppenheim, D. (2006). Child, parent, and parent-child emotion narratives: Implications for developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 18(3), 771–790. doi:10.1017/S095457940606038X
  • Posner, M. I., & Rothbart, M. K. (2000). Developing mechanisms of self-regulation. Development and Psychopathology, 12(3), 427–441. doi:10.1017/S0954579400003096
  • Radke-Yarrow, M., Nottelmann, E., Belmont, B., & Welsh, J. D. (1993). Affective interactions of depressed and nondepressed mothers and their children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 21(6), 683–695. doi:10.1007/BF00916450
  • Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1(3), 385–401. doi:10.1177/014662167700100306
  • Ramos-Marcuse, F., Oberlander, S. E., Papas, M. A., McNary, S. W., Hurley, K. M., & Black, M. M. (2010). Stability of maternal depressive symptoms among urban, low-income, African American adolescent mothers. Journal of Affective Disorders, 122(1–2), 68–75. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2009.06.018
  • Robinson, J., Mantz-Simmons, L., Macfie, J., Kelsay, K., Holmberg, J., & the MacArthur Narrative Working Group. (2004). The MacArthur Narrative Working Group. The MacArthur Narrative Coding System ( Unpublished document). University of Colorado Health Sciences Center, Denver, CO.
  • Rothbaum, F., & Weisz, J. R. (1994). Parental caregiving and child externalizing behavior in nonclinical samples: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 116(1), 55–74. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.116.1.55
  • Schafer, J. L., & Graham, J. W. (2002). Missing data: Our view of the state of the art. Psychological Methods, 7, 147–177. doi:10.1037/1082-989X.7.2.147
  • Schechter, D. S., Zygmunt, A., Coates, S. W., Davies, M., Trabka, K. A., McCaw, J., … Robinson, J. (2007). Caregiver traumatization adversely impacts young children’s mental representations on the MacArthur story stem battery. Attachment & Human Development, 9(3), 187–205. doi:10.1080/14616730701453762
  • Scheeringa, M. S., & Zeanah, C. H. (2001). A relational perspective on PTSD in early childhood. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 14(4), 799–815. doi:10.1023/A:1013002507972
  • Seng, A. C., & Prinz, R. J. (2008). Parents who abuse: What are they thinking? Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 11(4), 163–175. doi:10.1007/s10567-008-0035-y
  • Shamir, H., Schudlich, T. D., & Cummings, E. M. (2001). Marital conflict, parenting styles, and children’s representations of family relationships. Parenting: Science and Practice, 1(1–2), 123–151. doi:10.1207/S15327922PAR011&2_7
  • Sharp, D., Hay, D. F., Pawlby, S., Schmücker, G., Allen, H., & Kumar, R. (1995). The impact of postnatal depression on boys’ intellectual development. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 36(8), 1315–1336. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.1995.tb01666.x
  • Sheeber, L., Davis, B., & Hops, H. (2002). Gender-specific vulnerability to depression in children of depressed mothers. In S. H. Goodman & I. H. Gotlib (Eds.), Children of depressed parents: Mechanisms of risk and implications for treatment (pp. 253–274). Washington, DC: APA Books.
  • Sheehan, M. J., & Watson, M. W. (2008). Reciprocal influences between maternal discipline techniques and aggression in children and adolescents. Aggressive Behavior, 34, 245–255. doi:10.1002/ab.20241
  • Shields, A., Ryan, R. M., & Cicchetti, D. (2001). Narrative representations of caregivers and emotion dysregulation as predictors of maltreated children’s rejection by peers. Developmental Psychology, 37(3), 321–337. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.37.3.321
  • Silk, J. S., Shaw, D. S., Prout, J. T., O’Rourke, F., Lane, T. J., & Kovacs, M. (2011). Socialization of emotion and offspring internalizing symptoms in mothers with childhood-onset depression. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 32(3), 127–136. doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2011.02.001
  • Stadelmann, S., Perren, S., von Wyl, A., & von Klitzing, K. (2007). Associations between family relationships and symptoms/strengths at kindergarten age: What is the role of children’s parental representations? Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry, 48(10), 996–1004. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01813.x
  • Strassberg, Z., & Treboux, D. (2000). Interpretations of child emotion expressions and coercive parenting practices among adolescent mothers. Social Development, 9(1), 80–95. doi:10.1111/1467-9507.00112
  • Sturge-Apple, M. L., Davies, P. T., Cicchetti, D., & Manning, L. G. (2012). Interparental violence, maternal emotional unavailability and children’s cortisol functioning in family contexts. Developmental Psychology, 48(1), 237–249. doi:10.1037/a0025419
  • Sturge-Apple, M. L., Davies, P. T., Martin, M. J., Cicchetti, D., & Hentges, R. F. (2012). An examination of the impact of harsh parenting contexts on children’s adaptation within an evolutionary framework. Developmental Psychology, 48(3), 791–805. doi:10.1037/a0026908
  • Toth, S. L., Rogosch, F. A., Sturge-Apple, M., & Cicchetti, D. (2009). Maternal depression, children’s attachment security, and representational development: An organizational perspective. Child Development, 80(1), 192–208. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01254.x
  • Viddal, K. R., Berg-Nielsen, T. S., Wan, M. W., Green, J., Hygen, B. W., & Wichstrøm, L. (2015). Secure attachment promotes the development of effortful control in boys. Attachment & Human Development, 17(3), 319–335. doi:10.1080/14616734.2014.999098
  • Zahn-Waxler, C. (2000). The development of empathy, guilt, and internalization of distress. In R. Davidson (Ed.), Wisconsin symposium on emotion: Vol. I. Anxiety, depression, and emotion (pp. 222–265). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
  • Zahn-Waxler, C., Klimes-Dougan, B., & Slattery, M. J. (2000). Internalizing problems of childhood and adolescence: Prospects, pitfalls, and progress in understanding the development of anxiety and depression. Development and Psychopathology, 12(3), 443–466. doi:10.1017/S0954579400003102
  • Zahn-Waxler, C., Park, J., Usher, B., Belouad, F., Cole, P., & Gruber, R. (2008). Young children’s representations of conflict and distress: A longitudinal study of boys and girls with disruptive behavior problems. Development and Psychopathology, 20(1), 99–119. doi:10.1017/S0954579408000059
  • Zahn-Waxler, C., & Polanichka, N. (2004). All things interpersonal: Socialization and female aggression. In M. Putallaz & K. L. Bierman (Eds.), Aggression, antisocial behavior, and violence among girls: A developmental perspective (pp. 48–68). New York, NY: Guilford Publications.
  • Zimmer‐Gembeck, M. J., Thomas, R., Hendrickson, K., Avdagic, E., Webb, H., & McGregor, L. (2013). Maternal emotional distress, abuse risk, and children’s symptoms: Child gender as a moderator of parent sensitivity as a mediator. Infant and Child Development, 22(5), 480–500. doi:10.1002/icd.1804
  • Zimmermann, P. (1999). Structure and functions of internal working models of attachment and their role for emotion regulation. Attachment & Human Development, 1(3), 291–306. doi:10.1080/14616739900134161

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.