- Levene , Mark . 1999 . "Connecting Threads: Rwanda, the Holocaust and the Pattern of Contemporary Genocide," ” . In Genocide: Essays Toward Understanding, Early-Waming and Prevention , Edited by: Smith , Roger W. 27 – 64 . Williamsburg, VA : College of William and Mary Press .
- Goldhagen , Daniel . 1997 . Hitler's Willing Executioners: Ordinary Germans and the Holocaust , New York : Vintage Books .
- Birn , Ruth Bettina . 1997 . "Revisiting the Holocaust," . The Historical Journal , 40 ( l ) : 195 – 215 . For critical commentaries, see
- Husson , Edouard . 1997 . Une culpabilité ordinaire? Les enjeux de la controverse Coldhagen , Paris : PUF .
- Lemarchand , R. 1995 . Burundi: Ethnic Conflict and Genocide , 201 New York : Cambridge University and Woodrow Wilson Center Press . Significantly, the first signs of an explicitly anti-Tutsi, racist ideology came into view not in Rwanda but among the Tanzania-based Hutu refugees from Burundi, in the aftermath of the 1972 genocide
- Malkki , Liisa . 1995 . Purity and Exile: Transformations in Historical-National Consciousness Among Hutu Refugees in Tanzania , Chicago : University of Chicago Press .
- Lemarchand , R. 2000 . "Reflections on the Rwanda Genocide: A Backward Glance into the Past," . paper presented at the annual meeting of the African Studies Association (ASA) . November 2000 , Nashville. For a more detailed discussion of the impact of the abortive inyenzi raids on post-revolutionary Rwanda, see
- Mayer , Arno . 1989 . Why Did the Heavens Not Darken? The Final Solution in History , 459 New York : Pantheon Books . Arno Mayer describes Barbarossa as "an incarnation of the major tenets of Hitler's action-ideology. Rooted in racist social Darwinism, the war in the east had the fourfold purpose of conquering Lebensraum from Russia, of enslaving the Slavic populations, of crushing the Soviet regime, and of liquidating the alleged nerve-center of international Bolchevism."
- Nolle , Ernst . 1985 . Deutschland und der Kalte Krieg , Stuttgart : Fischer Verlag .
- Kershaw , Ian . 2000 . Hitler: 1936-1945, Nemesis , 841 London : Penguin Books .
- Bauer , Yehuda . 2001 . Rethinking Genocide , 42 47 New Haven and London : Yale University Press .
- Ibid, p 46.
- Forges , Alison Des . 1999 . Leave None To Tell the Story , 65 – 91 . New York and Paris : Human Rights Watch and International Federation of Human Rights .
- Chrétien , Jean-Pierre . 1995 . “ Rwanda ” . In Les media du genocide , Paris : Karthala .
- Fein , Helen . 1984 . "Scenarios of Genocide: Models of Genocide and Critical Responses," ” . In Towards the Understanding and Prevention of Genocide , Edited by: Charny , Israel . Boulder : Westview Press . cited in Melson op cit, 15
- Lemarchand , R. 1995 . Burundi: Ethnic Conflict and Genocide , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press and Wilson Center Press .
- Lemarchand , R. and Martin , David . 1974 . Selective Genocide in Burundi , London : Minority Rights Group .
- Lemarchand , R. Burundi: Ethnic Conflict and Genocide 76 – 105 . for a more detailed (and revised) analysis of the 1972 bloodbath, see, op cit
- It is noteworthy that most analysts of the Rwanda genocide more or less systematically shun the use of the term "genocide" to describe the 1972 bloodbath, as if recognition of the anti-Hutu genocide in Burundi might diminish the horror of the anti-Tutsi genocide in Burundi. For example, in her definitive work on Rwanda, Alison Des Forges refers to the "slaughter of tens of thousands of Hutu by Tutsi… in 1972" (p 65) and elsewhere to the "slaughter" of "some 100,000 Hutu" (p 134). The G word never appears in the Burundi context. Alison Des Forges, op cit
- Ternon , Yves . 2001 . L'innocence des victimes au siécle des génocides , 47 Paris : Desclée de Brouwer .
- Semelin , Jaques . 2000 . "Qu'est-ce qu'un crime de masse? Le cas de l'ex-Yougoslavie . Critique Internationale , Winter : 146
- Destexhe , Alain . 1994 . Rwanda and Genocide in the Twentieth Century , 13 New York : New York University Press .
- Arendt , Hannah . 1963 . Eichmann in Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality of Evil , New York : Viking Press .
- Hilberg , Raul . 1967 . The Destruction of European Jews , New York : Quadrangle .
- Browning , Christopher . 1992 . Ordinary Men: Reserve Police Battalion 101 and the Final Solution in Poland , New York : Harper Collins .
- Jones , Bruce . 1995 . "'Intervention without Borders': Humanitarian Intervention in Rwanda, 1990-94," . Millenium: Journal of International Studies , 24 ( 2 ) : 243
- Jones , Bruce . 1999 . "Civil War, the Peace Process and Genocide in Rwanda," ” . In Civil Wars in Africa , Edited by: Ali , Taisier M. and Matthews , Robert O. 53 – 86 . Montreal : McGill-Queens University Press .
- Ntezimana , Vincent . 2000 . La Justice Beige Face au Génocide Rwandals , 42 Paris : Karthala . The author's phrasing ignores the fact that the MDR's activities in the Butare prefecture were not exactly "peaceful," and that he himself has been accused by a Belgian tribunal of having taken part in the genocide
- Rothchild , Donald and Groth , Alexander J. 1995 . "Pathological Dimensions of Domestic and International Ethnicity," . Political Science Quarterly , 110 ( 1 ) : 75
- Browning , Christopher . 1994 . "Ordinary Germans or Ordinary Men," ” . In Address and Response at the Inauguration of the Dorot Chair of Modern Jewish and Holocaust Studies , 9 Atlanta : Emory University . The term is borrowed from Christopher Browning to designate low-level genocidaires as distinct from the regular army, the Presidential Guard and the prefectoral and communal cadres.
- Reyntjens , Filip . 1996 . "Rwanda: Genocide and Beyond," . Journal of Refugee Studies , 9 ( 3 ) : 6
- Gasana , James . 2000 . "Natural resource scarcity and violence in Rwanda," ” . In A Report Prepared for the Swiss Organization for Development and Cooperation (Intel-cooperation) available from the author at jgasana@interccopch
- Fein , Helen . "Patrons, Prevention and Punishment of Genocide: Observations on Bosnia and Rwanda," ” . In The Prevention of Genocide: Rwanda and Yugoslavia Reconsidered, A Working Paper of the Institute for the Study of Genocide , Edited by: Fein , Helen . 5 New York : 1994 .
- Midlarsky , Manus I. 2000 . "The killing trap: genocides and other mass murders of the twentieth century," ” . 6 unpublished manuscript
- Naimark , Norman M. 2001 . Fires of Hatred: Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth Century Europe , 57 Cambridge, MA : Harvard University Press .
- 2000 . Comprendre Hitler et la Shoa: Les Historiens de la République fédérale d'Allemagne et l'identité allemande depuis 1949 , Paris : Presses Universitaires de France . On the contrasting interpretations of the Holocaust offered by German historians, see Edouard Husson's outstanding analysis
- Browning , Christopher . 1992 . The Path to Genocide , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . Chapter 5
- Melson , Robert . 1992 . Revolution and Genocide: On the Origins of the Armenian Genocide and the Holocaust , Chicago : The University of Chicago Press .
- Fein , Helen . 1990 . "Genocide: A Sociological Perspective," . Current Sociology , 38 ( 1 ) Spring : 28 – 29 . Special Issue, Especially pertinent in the context of this paper is Fein's discussion of "the misuses of genocide comparison," ibid, pp 55-69
- Berkeley , Bill . 2001 . The Graves Are Not Yet Full: Race, Tribe and Power in the Heart of Africa , 264 – 265 . New York : Basic Books . Bill Berkeley, one of the few observers to call into question the parallels between the Tutsi's experience of genocide and that of the Jews, notes in the same vein that "the parallels are not exact: the Jews of Europe were never armed. There was no Jewish conspiracy to dominate Europe, nor had there ever been one. There had been no Jewish tyranny in Germany, as there were Tutsi tyrannies in Rwanda and Burundi, and there had been no Jewish-perpetrated genocides in, say, Austria, as there were Tutsi-perpetrated genocides against Hutus no fewer than three times in a generation in Burundi, just an hour's drive down the road."
- Miles , William F.S. 2000 . "Hamites and Hebrews: problems of 'Judaizing' the Rwandan genocide," . Journal of Genocide Research , 2 ( 1 ) : 112
- Ibid, p 112.
- Saunders , Edith . 1969 . "The Hamitic Hypothesis: Its Origins and Functions in Time Perspective," . Journal of African History , 10 : 521 – 532 . The definitive work on Aryan ideology is Leon Poliakov, Le Mythr Aryen (Calmann-Levy, Paris: 1994); on the Hamitic hypethesis
- I have noted elsewhere the more intriguing parallels between the Aryan myth and its Rwandan counterpart: (a) their genealogical roots are traceable to societies located outside the genocidal states, one to ancient Ethiopia, the other to Sanskrit civilization; (b) both were elaborated by nineteenth century European intellectuals anxious to lend pseudo-scientific respectability to their speculations about the presumed superiority of certain civilizations, including their own; (c) in post-colonial Rwanda as in Nazi Germany these pseudo-scientific were recast into virulently racist myths at the hands of Nazi and Hutu ideologues. See R. Lemarchand, "Where Hamites and Aryans Cross Paths: Myth-Making and Mass Murder" (unpublished ms.)
- Lemarchand , R. 1970 . Rwanda and Burundi , London : Pall Mall . For a fuller discussion of the Hutu revolution
- Uvin , Peter . 1996 . 'Tragedy in Rwanda," . Environment , April : 13
- Vansina , Jan . 2001 . Le Rwanda ancien , Paris : Karthala . esp the last chapter, "L'histoire face a au present," and R. Lemarchand, Ethnicity as Myth: The View from Central Africa (University of Copenhagen, Center for African Studies, Occasional Paper, May 1999)
Journal of Genocide Research
Volume 4, 2002 - Issue 4