Advanced search
Publication Cover
Theoretical Issues in Ergonomics Science Volume 20, 2019 - Issue 3: Driving Automation and Autonomy
Submit an article Journal homepage
3,986
Views
26
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Articles

How to keep drivers engaged while supervising driving automation? A literature survey and categorisation of six solution areas

Christopher D. D. CabrallCognitive Robotics Department, Faculty of Mechanical, Maritime and Materials Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands;Correspondence[email protected]
ORCID Iconhttp://orcid.org/0000-0003-1357-0160View further author information
ORCID Icon,
Alexander ErikssonNorwegian Centre for Transport Research (TØI, Transport⊘konomisk Institutt), Automation and Digitalisation, Forskningsparken - Oslo Science Park, Oslo, Norway; ORCID Iconhttps://orcid.org/0000-0003-1549-1327View further author information
ORCID Icon,
Felix DregerCognitive Robotics Department, Faculty of Mechanical, Maritime and Materials Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands;ORCID Iconhttps://orcid.org/0000-0003-2918-116XView further author information
ORCID Icon,
Riender HappeeCognitive Robotics Department, Faculty of Mechanical, Maritime and Materials Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands;ORCID Iconhttp://orcid.org/0000-0001-5878-3472View further author information
ORCID Icon &
Joost de WinterBiomechanical Engineering Department, Faculty of Mechanical, Maritime and Materials Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The NetherlandsORCID Iconhttp://orcid.org/0000-0002-1281-8200View further author information
ORCID Icon
Pages 332-365 | Received 31 Dec 2017, Accepted 22 Sep 2018, Published online: 21 Mar 2019

References

  • #Ackerman, W., and W. Block. 1992. “Understanding Supervisory Systems.” Computer Applications in Power 5 (4): 37–40.
  • Ayre, J. 2017. “Ford: Skip level 3 autonomous cars – Even engineers supervising self-driving vehicle testing lose ‘Situational Awareness’.” Clean Technica. https://cleantechnica.com/2017/02/20/ford-skip-level-3-autonomous-cars-even-engineers-supervising-self-driving-vehicle-testing-lose-situational-awareness/.
  • Bainbridge, L. 1983. “Ironies of Automation.” Automatica 19 (6): 775–779.
  • Banks, V. A., A. Eriksson, J. O’Donoghue, and N. A. Stanton. 2018. “Is Partially Automated Driving a Bad Idea? Observations from an on-Road Study.” Applied Ergonomics 68: 138–145.
  • #Banks, V. A., and N. A. Stanton. 2016. “Keep the Driver in Control: Automating Automobiles of the Future.” Ergonomics 53: 389–395.
  • Banks, V. A., N. A. Stanton, and C. Harvey. 2014. “Sub-Systems on the Road to Vehicle Automation: Hands and Feet Free but Not ‘Mind’ Free Driving.” Safety Science 62: 505–514.
  • Beggiato, M., F. Hartwich, K. Schleinitz, J. F. Krems, I. Othersen, and I. Petermann-Stock. 2015. “What Would Drivers Like to Know during Automated Driving? Information Needs at Different Levels of Automation.” 7th conference on driver assistance. Munich, Germany.
  • Bennett, K. B., and J. M. Flach. 2011. Display and Interface Design: Subtle Science, Exact Art. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group.
  • Billings, C. E. 1991. Human-Centered Aircraft Automation; A Concept and Guidelines (NASA Tech. Memorandum 103885.). Moffet Field, CA: NASA Ames Research Center.
  • Black Tesla. 2016. “Tesla v8.0 Autopilot – Warning Interval & Autosteer Unavailable.” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=isZ3fSbE_pg.
  • #Blasch, E. P., and S. Plano. 2002. “JDL Level 5 Fusion Model ‘User Refinement’ Issues and Applications in Group Tracking.” Signal Processing, Sensor Fusion, and Target Recognition XI, pp. 270–290.
  • BMW. 2017. “7 series, 750i xDrive Owner’s Manual. Steering and Lane Control Assistant.” https://www.bmwusa.com/owners-manuals.html.
  • #Breda, L. V. 2012. Supervisory Control of Multiple Uninhabited Systems: Methodologies and Enabling Human-Robot Interface Technologies.” NATO Research and Technology Organization. Technical Report. Neuilly-Sur-Seine, France.
  • Broadbent, D. E., and M. Gregory. 1965. “Effects of Noise and signal rate upon Vigilance Analysed by Means of Decision Theory.” Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 7 (2): 155–162.
  • Brooks, R. 1991. “Intelligence without Representation.” Artificial Intelligence 47 (1–3): 139–159.
  • Cabrall, C. D. D., J. Goncalves, A. Morando, M. Sassman, J. C. F. de Winter, and R. Happee. 2017. “HFAuto D3.1 Driver-State Monitor. Human Factors of Automated Driving, Initial Training Networks, FP7-PEOPLE-2013-ITN, Grant agreement no.: 605817.”
  • Cabrall, C. D. D., R. Happee, and J. C. F. de Winter. 2016. “From Mackworth’s Clock to the Open Road: A Literature Review on Driver Vigilance Task Operationalization.” Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour 40: 169–189.
  • California DMV. 2018. “Testing of Autonomous Vehicles with a Driver.” State of California Department of Motor Vehicles, Vehicle Registration. https://www.dmv.ca.gov/portal/dmv/detail/vr/autonomous/testing.
  • Card, S. K., T. P. Moran, and A. Newell. 1983. The Psychology of Human-Computer Interaction. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
  • Casner, S. M., E. L. Hutchins, and D. Norman. 2016. “The Challenges of Partially Automated Driving.” Communications of the ACM 59 (5): 70–77.
  • Chen, J. Y. C., and M. J. Barnes. 2012a. “Supervisory Control of Multiple Robots: Effects of Imperfect Automation and Individual Differences.” Human Factors 54 (2): 157–174.
  • #Chen, J. Y. C., and M. J. Barnes. 2012b. “Supervisory Control of Multiple Robots in Dynamic Tasking Environments.” Ergonomics 55: 1043–1058.
  • #Chen, J. Y. C., M. J. Barnes, and M. Harper-Sciarini. 2011. “Supervisory Control of Multiple Robots: Human-Performance Issues and User-Interface Designs.” IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics, Part C (Applications and Reviews) 41 (4): 435–454.
  • Chiappe, D., T. Z. Strybel, and K. L. Vu. 2015. “A Situated Approach to the Understanding of Dynamic Systems.” Journal of Cognitive Engineering and Decision Making 9 (1): 33–43.
  • Clark, A., and D. Chalmers. 1998. “The Extended Mind.” Analysis 58: 10–23.
  • #Clauss, S., and A. Schulte. 2014. “Implications for Operator Interactions in an Agent Supervisory Control Relationship.” International Conference on Unmanned Aircraft Systems (ICUAS). Orlando, FL, USA.
  • Cohen, J. 1960. “A Coefficient of Agreement for Nominal Scales.” Educational and Psychological Measurement 20: 213–220.
  • Craig, A. 1984. “Human Engineering: The Control of Vigilance.” In Sustained Attention in Human Performance, edited by J. Warm, pp. 247–291. Chichester, UK: Wiley.
  • #Cummings, M. L., S. Bruni, S. Mercier, and P. J. Mitchell. 2007. “Automation Architecture for Single Operator-Multiple UAV Command and Control.” International Command and Control Journal 1 (2): 1–24.
  • #Cummings, M. L., and S. Guerlain. 2007. “Developing Operator Capacity Estimates for Supervisory Control of Autonomous Vehicles.” Human Factors 49 (1): 1–15.
  • #Cummings, M. L., C. Mastracchio, K. Thornburg, and A. Mkrtchyan. 2013. “Boredom and Distraction in Multiple Unmanned Vehicle Supervisory Control.” Interacting with Computers 25 (1): 34–47.
  • #Cummings, M. L., and P. J. Mitchell. 2007. “Operator Scheduling Strategies in Supervisory Control of Multiple UAVs.” Aerospace Science and Technology 11 (4): 339–348.
  • #Cummings, M. L., and C. E. Nehme. 2010. “Modeling the Impact of Workload in Network Centric Supervisory Control Settings.” In Neurocognitive and Physiological Factors during High-Tempo Operations, edited by S. Kornguth, R. Steinberg, and M. D. Matthews, pp. 23–40. Surrey, UK: Ashgate.
  • DARPA 2014. “The DARPA Grand Challenge: Ten Years Later.” Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, News and Events. https://www.darpa.mil/news-events/2014-03-13.
  • De Waard, D., M. Van der Hulst, M. Hoedemaeker, and K. A. Brookhuis. 1999. “Driver Behavior in an Emergency Situation in the Automated Highway System.” Transportation Human Factors 1 (1): 67–82.
  • De Winter, J. C. F., and D. Dodou. 2014. “Why the Fitts List Has Persisted throughout the History of Function Allocation.” Cognition, Technology & Work 16 (1): 1–11.
  • De Winter, J. C. F., A.A. Zadpoor, and D. Dodou. 2014. “The Expansion of Google Scholar versus Web of Science: A Longitudinal Study.” Scientometrics 98: 1547–1565.
  • Diewald, S., A. Moller, L. Roalter, T. Stockinger, and M. Kranz. 2013. “Gameful Design in the Automotive Domain – Review, Outlook, and Challenges.” Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Automotive UI, Eindhoven, The Netherlands, October 28–30.
  • Ellingwood, K. 1996. “Project Begins to Test ‘Driver-Less’ Freeway System.” Los Angeles Times. http://articles.latimes.com/1996-06-28/news/mn-19436_1_highway-system.
  • Elliot, M. A., V. A. McColl, and J. V. Kennedy. 2003. “Road Design Measures to Reduce Drivers’ Speed via “Psychological” Processes: A literature review.” (No. TRL Report TRL564). Crowthorne, UK: TRL Limited.
  • Endsley, M. R. 1995. “Toward a Theory of Situational Awareness in Dynamic Systems.” Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 37 (1): 32–64.
  • #Endsley, M. R., and E. O. Kiris. 1995. “The out-of-the-Loop Performance Problem and Level of Control in Automation.” Human Factors 37 (2): 381–394.
  • Endsley, M. R., B. Bolte, and D. G. Jones. 2003. Designing for Situation Awareness: An Approach to User-Centered Design. Boca Raton, FL: CRS, Taylor & Francis Group.
  • *Eriksson, A., *S. M. Petermeijer, M. Zimmerman, J. C. F. De Winter, K. J. Bengler, and N. Stanton. (in press). “Rolling Out the Red (and Green) Carpet: Supporting Driver Decision Making in Automation to Manual Transitions.” IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems. THMS-17-02-0061.*
  • Fitts, P. M. ed. 1951. Human Engineering for an Effective Air Navigation and Traffic Control System. Washington, DC: National Research Council.
  • Flach, J. M. 1990. “Control with an Eye for Perception: Precursors to an Active Psychophysics.” Ecological Psychology 2 (2): 83–111.
  • Flach, J. M. 2018. “Situated cognition.” Professional communication via LinkedIn, June 2018. https://www.linkedin.com/feed/update/urn:li:activity:6413792059702022144.
  • Flemisch, F., D. Abbink, M. Itoh, M.-P. Pacaux-Lemoine, and G. Weßel. 2016. “Shared Control is the Sharp End of Cooperation: Towards a Common Framework of Joint Action, Shared Control and Human Machine Cooperation.” International Federation of Automatic Control (IFAC) PapersOnLine 49 (19): 72–77.
  • Ford 2018. “Ford Creates ‘Ford Autonomous Vehicles LLC’: Strengthens Global Organization to Accelerate Progress, Improve Fitness.” Ford Media Center. https://media.ford.com/content/fordmedia/fna/us/en/news/2018/07/24/ford-creates-ford-autonomous-vehicles-llc.html.
  • Frankmann, J., and J. Adams. 1962. “Theories of Vigilance.” Psychological Bulletin 59 (4): 257–272.
  • Gallagher, S. 2005. How the Body Shapes the Mind. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Gao, P., R. Hensley, and A. Zielke. 2014. “A Roadmap to the Future for the Auto Industry.” McKinsey Quarterly, October.
  • #Gaushell, D. J., and H. T. Darlington. 1987. “Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition.” Proceedings of the IEEE 75 (12): 1645–1658.
  • #Gersh, J. R., and B. W. Hamill. 1992. “Cognitive Engineering of Rule-Based Supervisory Control Systems: Effects of Concurrent Automation. Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics. Chicago, IL, USA, pp. 1208–1213.
  • Gibson, J. J. 1979. The Ecological Approach to Visual Perception. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.
  • Google 2018. “Ten things we know to be true.” Google. https://www.google.com/about/philosophy.html.
  • Gopher, D. 1991. “The Skill of Attention Control: Acquisition and Execution of Attention Strategies.” In Attention and Performance XIV, edited by D. Meyer and S. Kornblum. Hillsdale NJ: Erlbaum.
  • Greenlee, E. T., P. R. DeLucia, and D. C. Newton. 2018. “Driver Vigilance in Automated Vehicles: Hazard Detection Failures Are a Matter of Time.” Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 60 (4): 465–476.
  • Groh, F. 2012. “Gamification: State of the Art Definition and Utilization.” Proceedings of the 4th seminar on research trends in media informatics. Ulm, Germany: Ulm University, pp. 39–46.
  • Gunn, D. V., J. S. Warm, W. T. Nelson, R. S. Bolia, D. A. Schumsky, and K. J. Corcoran. 2005. “Target Acquisition with UAVs: Vigilance Displays and Advanced Cuing Interfaces.” Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 47 (3): 488–497.
  • Hancock, P. A. 2017a. “On the Nature of Vigilance.” Human Factors 59 (1): 35–43.
  • Hancock, P. A. 2017b. “Driven to Distraction and Back Again.” In Driver Distraction and Inattention: Advances in Research and Countermeasures, edited by M. A. Regan, J. D. Lee, and T. W. Victor, Surrey, UK: Ashgate.
  • #Hart, C. S. 2010. “Assessing the Impact of Low Workload in Supervisory Control of Networked Unmanned Vehicles.” Master’s Thesis, The Massachusetts Institute of Technology. http://web.mit.edu/aeroastro/labs/halab/papers/Hart-Thesis-2010.pdf.
  • Hawkins, A. J. 2018. “Senior Citizens will Lead the Self-Driving Revolution. The Verge: Transportation, Autonomous Cars.” https://www.theverge.com/2018/1/10/16874410/­voyage-self-driving-cars-villages-florida-retirement-communities.
  • Hawley, J. K., A. L. Mares, and C. A. Giammanco. 2005. “The Human Side of Automation: Lessons for Air Defense Command and Control.” Army Research Laboratory, Report No. ARL-TR-3468.
  • #Hawley, J. K., A. L. Mares, and C. A. Giammanco. 2006. “Training for Effective Human Supervisory Control of Air and Missile Defense Systems.” Army Research Laboratory, Report No. ARL-TR-3765.
  • #Hoc, J. M. 2000. “From Human-Machine Interaction to Human-Machine Cooperation.” Ergonomics 43: 833–843.
  • Hutchins, E., N. Weibel, C. Emmenegger, A. Fouse, and B. Holder. 2013. “An Integrative Approach to Understanding Flight Crew Activity.” Journal of Cognitive Engineering and Decision Making 7 (4): 353–376.
  • Janssen, N. M. 2016. “Adaptive Automation: Automatically (Dis)engaging Automation During Visually Distracted Driving.” Master’s Thesis. Retrieved from TU Delft repository: http://resolver.tudelft.nl/uuid:dd4cbcc5-f99e-4986-9f82-ab15c621ddc5.
  • Johnson, J. 2010. Designing with the Mind in Mind: Simple Guide to Understanding User Interface Design Rules. Burlington, MA: Morgan Kauffmann Publishers, Elsevier.
  • #Johnson, R., M. Leen, and D. Goldberg. 2007. “Testing Adaptive Levels of Automation (ALOA) for UAV Supervisory Control (AFRL-HE-WP-TR-2007-00682). Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, OH: Air Force Research Laboratory.
  • Kircher, K., and C. Ahlstrom. 2017. “Minimum Required Attention: A Human-Centered Approach to Driver Inattention.” Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 59 (3): 471–484.
  • Kyriakidis, M., C. van de Weijer, B. van Arem, and R. Happee. 2015. “The Deployment of Advanced Driver Assistance Systems in Europe.” 22nd Intelligent Transportation Systems World Congress. Bordeaux, France.
  • Landis, J. R., and G. G. Koch. 1977. “The Measurement of Observer Agreement for Categorical Data.” Biometrics 33 (1): 159–174.
  • Lee, J. D., and K. A. See. 2004. “Trust in Automation: Designing for Appropriate Reliance.” Human Factors 46 (1): 50–80.
  • Lee, J. D., and B. D. Seppelt. 2009. “Human Factors in Automation Design.” In Handbook of Automation, edited by S. Y. Nof, pp. 417–436. Berlin: Springer.
  • Li, L., D. Wen, N.-N. Zheng, and L.-C. Shen. 2012. “Cognitive Cars: A New Frontier for ADAS Research.” IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems 13 (1): 395–407.
  • #Lockhart, J. M., M. H. Strub, J. K. Hawley, and L. A. Tapia. 1993. “Automation and Supervisory Control: A Perspective on Human Performance, Training, and Performance Aiding.” Proceedings of the 37th Annual Meeting of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society. Seattle, WA, USA.
  • Lowry, R. 2018. “Kappa as a Measure of Concordance in Categorical Sorting.” VassarStats: Website for Statistical Computation. http://vassarstats.net/kappa.html.
  • Lutteken, N., M. Zimmermann, and K. Bengler. 2016. Using Gamification to motivate human cooperation in a lane-change scenario. IEEE 19th International Conference on Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITSC), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, November 1–4.
  • #Manly, T., I. H. Robertson, M. Galloway, and K. Hawkins. 1999. “The Absent Mind: Further Investigations of Sustained Attention to Response.” Neuropsychologia 37: 661–70.
  • Mackworth, N. H. 1948. “The Breakdown of Vigilance during Prolonged Visual Search.” Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 1 (1): 6–21. DOI: 10.1080/17470214808416738.
  • Mackworth, N. H. 1950. Researches on the Measurement of Human Performance. Medical Research Council Special Report Series No. 268. London, UK: HMSO.
  • Merat, N., A. H. Jamson, F. C. H. Lai, M. Daly, and O. M. J. Carsten. 2014. “Transition to Manual: Driver Behaviour When Resuming Control from a Highly Automated Vehicle.” Transportation Research Part F 27:274–282.
  • Merat, N., and J. D. Lee. 2012. “Preface to the Special Section on Human Factors and Automation in Vehicles: Designing Highly Automated Vehicles with the Driver in Mind.” Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 54 (5): 681–686.
  • MercBenzKing. 2016. “2017 Mercedes S Class Head up Display Drive Pilot Nightvision Assist Distronic Plus Lane Keeping.” YouTube demonstration video. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RjvI57BIDp0.
  • Mercedes-Benz. 2017. “S-Class Operator’s Manual. Part no. 2225849405.” https://www.mbusa.com/mercedes/service_and_parts/owners_manuals#!year=2017&class=S-Sedan.
  • #Miller, C., and R. Parsuraman. 2007. “Designing for Flexible Interaction between Humans and Automation: Delegation Interfaces for Supervisory Control.” Human Factors 49 (1): 57–75.
  • Molloy, R., and R. Parasuraman. 1996. “Monitoring an Automated System for a Single Failure: Vigilance and Task Complexity Effects.” Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38 (2): 311–322.
  • Moray, N. 1982. “Subjective Mental Workload.” Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 24 (1): 25–40.
  • Mosier, K. L., U. Fischer, D. Morrow, K. M. Feigh, F. T. Durso, K. Sullivan, and V. Pop. 2013. “Automation, Task, and Context Features: Impacts on Pilots’ Judgments of Human-Automation Interaction.” Journal of Cognitive Engineering and Decision Making 7 (4): 377–399.
  • Mulder, M., D. Abbink, and E. Boer. 2012. “Sharing Control with Haptics: Seamless Drive Support from Manual to Automatic Control.” Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 54 (5): 786–798.
  • Neisser, U. 1978. “Perceiving, Anticipating, and Imagining.” In Perception and Cognition: Issues in the Foundations of Psychology, edited by W. Savage, pp. 89–105. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.
  • Nelson, J. T., R. A. McKinley, E. J. Golob, J. S. Warm, and R. Parasuraman. 2014. “Enhancing Vigilance in Operators with Prefrontal Cortex Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS).” NeuroImage 85: 909–917.
  • NHTSA 2008. “National Motor Vehicle Crash Causation Survey. Report to Congress.” Report no. DOT HS 811059. Washington, D.C.: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.
  • NHTSA 2017. Automated Driving Systems 2.0: A Vision for Safety. Washington, D.C.: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.
  • Norman, D. 2007. The Design of Future Things. New York: Basic books. See esp. chap 3, ‘Natural Interaction’, section ‘Natural Safety’, pp. 77–85.
  • #Norman, D., and T. Shallice. 1986. “Attention to Action: Willed and Automatic Control of Behavior.” In Consciousness and Self-Regulation (vol. 4): Advances in Research and Theory, edited by R. J. Davidson, G. E. Schwartz, and D. Shapiro, pp. 1–18. New York: Plenum Press.
  • Ogden, G. D., J. M. Levine, and E. J. Eisner. 1979. “Measurement of Workload by Secondary Tasks.” Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 21 (5): 529–548.
  • Olson, W. A., and M. G. Wuennenberg. 1984. “Autonomy Based Human-Vehicle Interface Standards for Remotely Operated Aircraft.” Proceedings of the 20th Digital Avionics Systems Conference, Daytona Beach, FL, USA.
  • O’Regan, J. K. 1992. “Solving the ‘Real’ Mysteries of Visual Perception: The World as an outside Memory.” Canadian Journal of Psychology 46: 461–488.
  • Panou, M. C., E. D. Bekiaris, and A. A. Touliou. 2010. “ADAS Module in Driving Simulation for Training Young Drivers.” 13th International IEEE Conference on Intelligent Transportation Systems. Madeira Island, Portugal.
  • Parasuraman, R. 1979. “Memory Load and Event Rate Control Sensitivity Decrements in Sustained Attention.” Science 205 (4409): 924–927.
  • Parasuraman, R., and V. Riley. 1997. “Humans and Automation: Use, Misuse, Disuse, Abuse.” Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 39 (2): 230–253.
  • Parasuraman, R., B. Kidwell, R. Olmstead, M. K. Lin, R. Jankord, and P. Greenwood. 2014. “Interactive Effects of the COMT Gene and Training on Individual Differences in Supervisory Control of Unmanned Vehicles.” Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 56 (4): 760–771.
  • #Parasuraman, R., S. Galster, and C. A. Miller. 2003. “Human Control of Multiple Robots in the RoboFlag Simulation Environment.” Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics. Washington, DC.
  • #Parasuraman, R., S. Galster, P. Squire, H. Furukawa, and C. A. Miller. 2005. “A Flexible Delegation Interface Enhances System Performance in Human Supervision of Multiple Autonomous Robots: Empirical Studies with RoboFlag.” IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics – Part A: Systems and Humans 35:481–493.
  • Parasuraman, R., and L., Giambra. 1991. “Skill Development in Vigilance: Effects of Event Rate and Age.” Psychology and Aging 6 (2): 155–169.
  • Parasuraman, R., M. Mouloua, and R. Molloy. 1996. “Effects of Adaptive Task Allocation on Monitoring of Automated Systems.” Human Factors 38 (4): 665–679.
  • Parasuraman, R., T. B. Sheridan, and C. D. Wickens. 2000. “A Model for Types and Levels of Human Interaction with Automation.” IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics. Part A, Systems and Humans: a Publication of the Ieee Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Society 30 (3): 286–297.
  • Pijnenburg, J. 2017. “Naturalism: Effects of an Intuitive Augmented Reality Interface Property in the Display of Automated Driving Status.” Master’s Thesis. http://resolver.tudelft.nl/uuid:92d6b140-56f7-440a-b9ba-ff997c00ab4b.
  • #Pop, V. L., E. J. Stearman, S. Kazi, and F. T. Durso. 2012. “Using Engagement to Negate Vigilance Decrements in the NextGen Environment.” International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction 28: 99–106.
  • #Pope, A. T., E. H. Bogart, and D. S. Bartolome. 1995. “Biocybernetic System Evaluates Indices of Operator Engagement in Automated Task.” Biological Psychology 40:187–195.
  • Posner, M. I. 1978. Chronometric Explorations of Mind. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
  • Price, M. A., V. Venkatraman, M. Gibson, J. Lee, and B. Mutlu. 2016. “Psychophysics of Trust in Vehicle Control Algorithms.” SAE Technical Paper 2016-01-0144. Doi: 10.4271/2016-01-0144.
  • Rasmussen, J., A. M. Pejtersen, and L. P. Goodstein. 1994. Cognitive Systems Engineering. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
  • Rudin-Brown, C. M., and H. A. Parker. 2004. “Behavioural Adaptation to Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC): Implications for Preventative Strategies.” Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour 7 (2): 59–76.
  • #Ruff, H. A., S. Narayanan, and M. H. Draper. 2002. “Human Interaction with Levels of Automation and Decision-Aid Fidelity in the Supervisory Control of Multiple Simulated Unmanned Air Vehicles.” Presence 11: 335–351.
  • SAE. 2014. “Surface Vehicle Information Report: Taxonomy and Definitions for Terms Related to On-road Motor Vehicle Automated Driving Systems.” Standard J3016. On-Road Automated Vehicles Standards Committee, SAE International. https://www.sae.org/standards/content/j3016_201401/.
  • SAE. 2018. “Surface Vehicle Recommended Practice: Taxonomy and Definitions for Terms Related to Driving Automation Systems for On-road Motor Vehicles.” Standard J3016. On-Road Automated Vehicles Standards Committee, SAE International. https://www.sae.org/standards/content/j3016_201806/.
  • Saffarian, M., J. C. F. De Winter, and R. Happee. 2012. “Automated Driving: Human-Factors Issues and Design Solutions. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 56th Annual Meeting, Boston, MA, USA.
  • #Sarter, N. B., and D. D. Woods. 1992. “Mode Error in the Supervisory Control of Automated Systems.” Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 36th Annual Meeting, Atlanta, GA, USA.
  • #Sarter, N. B., and D. D. Woods. 1993. “How in the World Did we Ever Get into That Mode? Mode Error and Awareness in Supervisory Control.” Human Factors 37 (1): 5–19.
  • Scallen, S. F., P. A. Hancock, and J. A. Duley. 1995. “Pilot Performance and Preference for Short Cycles of Automation in Adaptive Function Allocation.” Applied Ergonomics 26 (6): 397–403.
  • Schutte, P. 1999. “Complemation: An Alternative to Automation.” Journal of Information Technology Impact 1 (3): 113–118.
  • #Scott, S. D., S. Mercier, M. L. Cummings, and E. Wang. 2006. “Assisting Interruption Recovery in Supervisory Control of Multiple UAVs. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 50th Annual Meeting, San Francisco, CA, USA.
  • See, J. E., S. R. Howe, J. S. Warm, and W. N. Dember. 1995. “Meta-Analysis of the Sensitivity Decrement in Vigilance.” Psychological Bulletin 117 (2): 230–249.
  • Seppelt, B. D., and J. D. Lee. 2007. “Making Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC) Limits Visible.” International Journal of Human-Computer Studies 65 (3):192–205.
  • Seppelt, B. D., and T. W. Victor. 2016. “Potential Solutions to Human Factors Challenges in Road Vehicle Automation.” In Road Vehicle Automation 3, Lecture Notes in Mobility, edited by G. Meyer, and S. Beiker. Switzerland: Springer International Publishing.
  • #Shaw, T., A. Emfield, A. Garcia, E. De Visser, C. A. Miller, R. Parasuraman, and L. Fern. 2010. “Evaluating the Benefits and Potential Costs of Automation Delegation for Supervisory Control of Multiple UAVs.” Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 54th Annual Meeting, San Francisco, CA, USA.
  • #Sheridan, T. B. 1986. “Human Supervisory Control of Robot Systems.” Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation 2:808–812.
  • Sheridan, T. B. 1992. Telerobotics, Automation, and Human Supervisory Control. Cambridge, MA: MIT press.
  • Sheridan, T. B., L. Charny, M. Mendel, and J. B. Roseborough. 1986. “Supervisory Control, Mental Models, and Decision Aids.” U.S. Office of Naval Research, contract report no. N00014-83-K-0193.
  • #Sheridan, T. B., and R. T. Hennessey. 1984. Research and Modelling of Supervisory Control Behavior. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
  • Sheridan, T. B. 2002. Supervisory control. In Humans and Automation: Systems Design and Research Issues. New York: John Wiley and Santa Monica, CA: Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, pp. 115–129.
  • Sherman, D. 2016. “2016 BMW 750i xDrive: Second Place: Semi-Autonomous Cars.” Car and Driver. https://www.caranddriver.com/features/semi-autonomous-cars-compared-tesla-vs-bmw-mercedes-and-infiniti-feature-2016-bmw-750i-xdrive-page-4.
  • Stanton, N. A., and M. S. Young. 2005. “Driver Behaviour with Adaptive Cruise Control.” Ergonomics 48 (10): 1294–1313.
  • Stanton, N. A., M. S. Young, G. H. Walker, H. Turner, and S. Randle. 2001. “Automating the Driver’s Control Tasks.” International Journal of Cognitive Ergonomics 5 (3): 221–236.
  • Sternberg, S. 1969. “ Memory-Scanning: mental Processes Revealed by Reaction-Time Experiments.” American Scientist 57 (4): 421–457.
  • Strand, N., J. Nilsson, I. C. MariAnne Karlsson, and L. Nilsson. 2014. “Semi-Automated versus Highly Automated Driving in Critical Situations Caused by Automation Failure.” Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour 27:218–228.
  • Suchman, L. A. 1987. Plans and Situated Actions: The Problem of Human-Machine Communication. New York: Cambridge University Press.
  • Super Cars. 2017. “What Happens if You Leave Tesla Autopilot on FOREVER Terrible Idea.” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C7xV9rMajNo.
  • Szymkowski, S. 2017. “Waymo Found Drivers Asleep, so it Dumped Partial Self-Driving Feature.” Motor Authority. https://www.motorauthority.com/news/1113654_waymo-found-drivers-asleep-so-it-dumped-partial-self-driving-feature.
  • Teichner, W. H. 1974. “The Detection of a Simple Visual Signal as a Function of Time of Watch.” Human Factors 16 (4): 339–353.
  • Terry. 2011. “The ‘Rattomorphism’ of Gamification. CGP: Critical Gaming Project.” University of Washington. https://depts.washington.edu/critgame/wordpress/2011/11/the-rattomorphism-of-gamification/.
  • Tesla. 2017. “Model S Owner’s Manual, 8.0. Driver Assistance Features.” https://www.tesla.com/sites/default/files/model_s_owners_manual_north_america_en_us.pdf.
  • Treat, J., N. Tumbas, S. McDonald, D. Shinar, R. Hume, R. Mayer, R. Stanisfer, and R. Castellan. 1979. “Tri-Level Study of the Causes of Traffic Accidents.” Report No. DOT-HS-034-3-535-77 (TAC).
  • Vicente, K. J., and J. Rasmussen. 1990. “The Ecology of Human-Machine Systems II: Mediating “Direct Perception” in Complex Work Domains.” Ecological Psychology 2 (3): 207–249.
  • Wickens, C. D. 1980. “The Structure of Attentional Resources.” In Attention and Performance VIII, edited by R. Nickerson, pp. 239–257. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
  • Wickens, C. D. 1984. “Processing Resources in Attention.” In Varieties of Attention, edited by R. Parasuraman, and Davies, pp. 63–101. New York: Academic Press.
  • Wickens, C. D., and C. M. Carswell. 1995. “The Proximity Compatibility Principle: Its Psychological Foundation and Relevance to Display Design.” Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 37 (3): 473–494.
  • Wickens, C. D., and C. Kessel. 1979. “The Effect of Participatory Mode and Task Workload on the Detection of Dynamic System Failures.” IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics 9 (1): 24–34.
  • Wiener, E. L., and R. E. Curry. 1980. “Flight-Deck Automation: Promises and Problems.” Ergonomics 23 (10): 995–1011.
  • Wilson, R. A. 2004. Boundaries of the Mind. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Young, M. S., and N. A. Stanton. 2002. “Malleable Attentional Resources Theory: A New Explanation for the Effects of Mental Underload on Performance.” Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 44 (3): 365–375.

Related research

People also read lists articles that other readers of this article have read.

Recommended articles lists articles that we recommend and is powered by our AI driven recommendation engine.

Cited by lists all citing articles based on Crossref citations.
Articles with the Crossref icon will open in a new tab.