References

• Abusharaf , R. 2002 . Wanderings: Sudanese Migrants and Exiles in North America , Ithaca, NY : Cornell University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Appiah , K. 2006 . Toward a new cosmopolitanism . The New York Times Magazine , 30–37 : 52 1 Jan.
   Google Scholar
• Apraku , K. 1991 . African Emigres in the United States , New York : Praeger .
   Google Scholar
• Arthur , J. 2000 . Invisible Sojourners: African Immigrant Diaspora in the United States , Westport, CT : Praeger .
   Google Scholar
• Attah-Poku , A. 1996 . The Socio-cultural Adjustment Question: The Role of Ghanaian Immigrant Associations in America , Brookfield, VT : Ashgate .
   Google Scholar
• Bailey , A. , Wright , R. , Mountz , A. and Miyares , I. 2002 . (Re)-producing Salvadoran transnational geographies . Annals of the Association of American Geographers , 92 : 125 – 144 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caplan , P. 2004 . “ Introduction ” . In Swahili Modernities: Culture, Politics, and Identity on the East Coast of Africa , Edited by: Caplan , P. and Topan , F. 1 – 18 . Trenton, NJ : Africa World Press .
   Google Scholar
• Carter , D. 1997 . States of Grace: Senegalese in Italy and the New European Immigration , Minneapolis : University of Minnesota Press .
   Google Scholar
• Carter , D. 2003 . “ Preface ” . In New African Diasporas , Edited by: Koser , K. ix – xix . London : Routledge .
   Google Scholar
• Chacko , E. 2003a . Identity and assimilation among young Ethiopian immigrants in metropolitan Washington . Geographical Review , 93 : 491 – 506 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chacko , E. 2003b . Ethiopian ethos and the making of ethnic places in the Washington metropolitan area . Journal of Cultural Geography , 20 : 21 – 42 .
   Google Scholar
• Childs , M. and Falola , T. 2004 . The Yoruba Diaspora in the Atlantic World , Bloomington : Indiana University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Clarke , K. 2004 . Mapping Yoruba Networks: Power and Agency in the Making of Transnational Communities , Durham, NC : Duke University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Colatrella , S. 2001 . Workers of the World: African and Asian Migrants in Italy in the 1990s , Trenton, NJ : Africa World Press .
   Google Scholar
• Dirlik , A. 2001 . “ Place-based imagination: globalism and the politics of place ” . In Places and Politics in an Age of Globalization , Edited by: Prazniak , R and Dirlik , A . 15 – 51 . Lanham, MD : Rowman & Littlefield .
   Google Scholar
• Dirlik , A. and Prazniak , R. 2001 . “ Introduction: cultural identity and the politics of place ” . In Places and Politics in an Age of Globalization , Edited by: Prazniak , R. and Dirlik , A. 3 – 13 . Lanham, MD : Rowman & Littlefield .
   Google Scholar
• El Nasser , H. 2005 . Population boom spawns super cities . USA Today , : 6A 11 July
   Google Scholar
• Fortier , A.-M. 2005 . “ Diaspora ” . In Cultural Geography: A Critical Dictionary of Key Concepts , Edited by: Atkinson , D. , Jackson , P. , Sibley , D. and Washbourne , N. 182 – 187 . London : I.B. Taurus .
   Google Scholar
• Gilroy , P. 1993 . The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness , London : Verso .
   Google Scholar
• Gilroy , P. 1995 . “ Roots and routes: black identity as an outernational project ” . In Racial and Ethnic Identity: Psychological Development and Creative Expression , Edited by: Harris , H. , Blue , H. and Griffith , E. 15 – 30 . London : Routledge .
   Google Scholar
• Gordon , A. 1998 . The new diaspora—African immigration to the United States . Journal of Third World Studies , 15 : 79 – 103 .
   Google Scholar
• Gudeman , S. and Rivera , A. 1989 . Colombian conversations . Current Anthropology , 30 : 267 – 276 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gupta , A. and Ferguson , J. 1992 . Beyond ‘culture’: space, identity, and the politics of difference, Cultural Anthropology , 7 : 6 – 23 .
   Google Scholar
• Hamilton , R. 2007 . “ Rethinking the African diaspora: global dynamics ” . In Routes of Passage: Rethinking the African Diaspora , Edited by: Hamilton , R. 1 – 40 . East Lansing : Michigan State University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Hannerz , U. 1996 . Transnational Connections: Culture, People, Places , New York : Routledge .
   Google Scholar
• Holtzman , J. 2000 . Nuer Journeys: Sudanese Refugees in Minnesota , Needham Heights, MA : Allyn & Bacon .
   Google Scholar
• Jackson , P. , Crang , P. and Dwyer , C. 2004 . “ Introduction: the spaces of transnationality ” . In Transnational Spaces , Edited by: Jackson , P. , Crang , P. and Dwyer , C. 1 – 23 . London : Routledge .
   Google Scholar
• Joseph , M. 1999 . Nomadic Identities: The Performance of Citizenship , Minneapolis : University of Minnesota Press .
   Google Scholar
• Kong , L. 1999 . Globalization and Singaporean transmigration: re-imagining and negotiating national identity . Political Geography , 18 : 563 – 589 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koser , K. 2003 . “ New African diasporas: an introduction ” . In New African Diasporas , Edited by: Koser , K. 1 – 16 . London : Routledge .
   Google Scholar
• Koser , K. and Lutz , H. 1998 . The New Migration in Europe , Basingstoke : Macmillan .
   Google Scholar
• Logan, J., Deane, G., Black diversity in metropolitan America, Lewis Mumford Center for Comparative Urban and Regional Research, University of Albany, <  http://www.antibiaslaw.com/biblio/Logandeane.pdf >.
   Google Scholar
• Lohrentz, K. (2004) Peoples of the Horn in the new African diaspora: Eritrean, Ethiopian, Somali, and Sudanese émigrés in the United States and Canada, paper, Kansas African Studies Center Seminar Series, 14 September.
   Google Scholar
• MacGaffey , J. and Bazenguissa-Ganga , R. 2000 . Congo–Paris: Transnational Traders on the Margins of the Law , Oxford and Bloomington : James Currey and Indiana University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Manger , L. and Assal , M. 2006 . “ Diasporas within and without Africa—dynamism, heterogeneity, variation ” . In Diasporas Within and Without Africa , Edited by: Manger , L. and Assal , M. 7 – 31 . Uppsala, Sweden : Nordic Africa Institute .
   Google Scholar
• Manuh , T. 2003 . “ Efie’ or the meanings of ‘home’ among female and male Ghanaian migrants in Toronto, Canada and returned migrants to Ghana ” . In New African Diasporas , Edited by: Koser , K. 140 – 159 . London : Routledge .
   Google Scholar
• Mitchell , K. 1997 . Transnational discourse: bringing geography back in . Antipode , 29 : 101 – 114 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mitchell , K. 2005 . “ Hybridity ” . In Cultural Geography: A Critical Dictionary of Key Concepts , Edited by: Atkinson , D. , Jackson , P. , Sibley , D. and Washbourne , N. 188 – 193 . London : I.B. Taurus .
   Google Scholar
• Page, B., Mercer, C. and Evans, M. (2005) Death and the diaspora: the everyday necropolitics of belonging, paper, Open University Geography Department, departmental seminar, 19 October.
   Google Scholar
• Peil , M. 1995 . Ghanaians abroad . African Affairs , 94 : 345 – 368 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perouse de Montclos , M.-A. 2003 . “ A refugee diaspora: when the Somali go west ” . In New African Diasporas , Edited by: Koser , K. 37 – 55 . London : Routledge .
   Google Scholar
• Portes, A., Globalization from below: the rise of transnational communities, ESRC Transnational Communities Program, <  http://www.transcomm.ox.ac.uk >.
   Google Scholar
• Power , M. 2003 . Rethinking Development Geographies , London : Routledge .
   Google Scholar
• Salih , R. 2003 . Gender in Transnationalism: Home, Longing and Belonging Among Moroccan Migrant Women , London : Routledge .
   Google Scholar
• Savage , M. , Bagnall , G. and Longhurst , B. 2005 . Globalization & Belonging , London : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Schomburg Center . 2005 . “ The Schomburg Center for Research on Black Culture presents ‘In motion: the African-American migration experience’ ” . New York : Schomburg Center .  < http://www.inmotionaame.org>
   Google Scholar
• Sheffer , G. 1986 . “ A new field of study: modern diasporas in international politics ” . In Modern Diasporas in International Politics , Edited by: Sheffer , G. 1 – 15 . London : Croom Helm .
   Google Scholar
• Simone , A. 2004 . For the City Yet to Come: Changing African Life in Four Cities , Durham, NC : Duke University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Stoller , P. 1999 . Jaguar: A Story of Africans in America , Chicago : University of Chicago Press .
   Google Scholar
• Stoller , P. 2002 . Money Has No Smell: The Africanization of New York City , Chicago : University of Chicago Press .
   Google Scholar
• Stoller , P. 2003 . “ Marketing Afrocentricity: West African trade networks in North America ” . In New African Diasporas , Edited by: Koser , K. 71 – 94 . London : Routledge .
   Google Scholar
• Styan , D. 2003 . “ La nouvelle vague? Recent Francophone African settlement in London ” . In New African Diasporas , Edited by: Koser , K. 17 – 36 . London : Routledge .
   Google Scholar
• Takougang , J. 1995 . Black immigrants to the United States . Western Journal of Black Studies , 19 : 50 – 57 .
   Google Scholar
• US Census Bureau (2005) Data from the 2000 Census, <  http://www.census.gov/main/www/cen2000.html >.
   Google Scholar
• Willis , K. , Yeoh , B. and Fakhri , S. 2004 . “ Introduction: transnationalism as a challenge to the nation ” . In State/Nation/Transnation: Perspectives on Transnationalism in the Asia-Pacific , Edited by: Yeoh , B. and Willis , K. 1 – 15 . London : Routledge .
   Google Scholar
• Woldemikael , T. 1996 . “ Ethiopians and Eritreans ” . In Refugees in America in the 1990s , Edited by: Haines , D. 147 – 169 . Westport, CT : Greenwood Press .
   Google Scholar