An update on the pharmacotherapeutic management of lower respiratory tract infections

References

• Blasi F, Cesana G, Conti S, et al. The clinical and economic impact of exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a cohort of hospitalized patients. PLoS One. 2014;9(6):e101228.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GBD 2013 Mortality and Causes of Death Collaborators. Global, regional, and national age-sex specific all-cause and cause-specific mortality for 240 causes of death, 1990-2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013. Lancet. 2015;385(9963):117–171.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blasi F, Torres A. Respiratory infections management: still a challenge. Pulm Pharmacol Ther. 2015;32:117–118.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woodhead M, Blasi F, Ewig S, et al. Guidelines for the management of adult lower respiratory tract infections - Full version. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2011;17(Suppl 6):E1–E59.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Höffken G, Lorenz J, Kern W, et al. Epidemiologie, Diagnostik, antimikrobielle Therapie und Management von erwachsenen Patienten mit ambulant erworbenen unteren Atemwegsinfektionen sowie ambulant erworbener Pneumonie – Update 2009. Pneumologie. 2009;63(10):e1–e68.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al. Pneumonia guidelines committee of the BTS standards of care committee. BTS guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults. Thorax. 2009;64(Suppl 3):1–55.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• National Institute for Health and Care Excellence, National Clinical Guideline Centre, Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease. Management of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in adults in primary and secondary care (CG101). 2010. [cited 2017 Jan 7]. Available from: http://guidance.nice.org.uk/CG101./
   Google Scholar
• Mandell LA, Wunderink RG, Anzueto A, et al. Infectious Diseases Society of America/American Thoracic Society consensus guidelines on the management of community-acquired pneumonia in adults. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;44(Suppl 2):S27–S72.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eccles S, Pincus C, Higgins B, et al. Diagnosis and management of community and hospital acquired pneumonia in adults: summary of NICE guidance. BMJ. 2014;349:g6722.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Torres A, Blasi F, Peetermans WE, et al. The aetiology and antibiotic management of community-acquired pneumonia in adults in Europe: a literature review. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2014;33(7):1065–1079.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reissig A, Mempel C, Schumacher U, et al. Microbiological diagnosis and antibiotic therapy in patients with community-acquired pneumonia and acute COPD exacerbation in daily clinical practice: comparison to current guidelines. Lung. 2013;191(3):239–246.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kalil AC, Metersky ML, Klompas M, et al. Management of adults with hospital-acquired and ventilator-associated pneumonia: 2016 clinical practice guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society of America and the American Thoracic Society. Clin Infect Dis. 2016;63(5):e61–e111.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Capelastegui A, España PP, Quintana JM, et al. Improvement of process-of-care and outcomes after implementing a guideline for the management of community-acquired pneumonia: a controlled before-and-after design study. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;39(7):955–963.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aliberti S, Blasi F, Zanaboni AM, et al. Duration of antibiotic therapy in hospitalised patients with community-acquired pneumonia. Eur Respir J. 2010;36(1):128–134.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bordon J, Aliberti S, Duvvuri P, et al. Early administration of the first antimicrobials should be considered a marker of optimal care of patients with community-acquired pneumonia rather than a predictor of outcomes. Int J Infect Dis. 2013;17(5):e293–e298.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hamoen M, Broekhuizen BD, Little P, et al. Medication use in European primary care patients with lower respiratory tract infection: an observational study. Br J Gen Pract. 2014;64(619):e81–e91.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roca I, Akova M, Baquero F, et al. The global threat of antimicrobial resistance: science for intervention. New Microbes New Infect. 2015;6:22–29.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Spellberg B, Bartlett J, Wunderink R, et al. Novel approaches are needed to develop tomorrow’s antibacterial therapies. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2015;191(2):135–140.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prat C, Lacoma A. Bacteria in the respiratory tract - how to treat? Or Do Not Treat? Int J Infect Dis. 2016;51:113–122.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barbier F, Andremont A, Wolff M, et al. Hospital-acquired pneumonia and ventilator-associated pneumonia: recent advances in epidemiology and management. Curr Opin Pulm Med. 2013;19(3):216–228.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tadros M, Williams V, Coleman BL, et al. Epidemiology and outcome of pneumonia caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in Canadian hospitals. PLoS One. 2013;8(9):e75171.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blasi F, Page C, Rossolini GM, et al. The effect of N-acetylcysteine on biofilms: implications for the treatment of respiratory tract infections. Respir Med. 2016;117:190–197.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Christ-Crain M, Müller B. Biomarkers in respiratory tract infections: diagnostic guides to antibiotic prescription, prognostic markers and mediators. Eur Respir J. 2007;30(3):556–573.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Viasus D, Del Rio-Pertuz G, Simonetti AF, et al. Biomarkers for predicting short-term mortality in community-acquired pneumonia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Infect. 2016;72(3):273–282.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rhee C. Using procalcitonin to guide antibiotic therapy. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2016. DOI:10.1093/ofid/ofw249
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Aabenhus R, Jensen JU, Jørgensen KJ, et al. Biomarkers as point-of-care tests to guide prescription of antibiotics in patients with acute respiratory infections in primary care. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014;11:CD010130.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Do NT, Ta NT, Tran NT, et al. Point-of-care C-reactive protein testing to reduce inappropriate use of antibiotics for non-severe acute respiratory infections in Vietnamese primary health care: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet Glob Health. 2016;4(9):e633–e641.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aabenhus R, Jensen JU. Biomarker-guided antibiotic use in primary care in resource-constrained environments. Lancet Glob Health. 2016;4(9):e586–e587.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meili M, Müller B, Kulkarni P, et al. Management of patients with respiratory infections in primary care: procalcitonin, C reactive protein or both? Expert Rev Respir Med. 2015;9(5):587–601.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu D, Su LX, Guan W, et al. Prognostic value of procalcitonin in pneumonia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Respirology. 2016;21(2):280–288.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Self WH, Grijalva CG, Williams DJ, et al. Procalcitonin as an early marker of the need for invasive respiratory or vasopressor support in adults with community-acquired pneumonia. Chest. 2016;150(4):819–828.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van der Does Y, Rood PP, Haagsma JA, et al. Procalcitonin-guided therapy for the initiation of antibiotics in the ED: a systematic review. Am J Emerg Med. 2016;34(7):1286–1293.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schuetz P, Müller B, Christ-Crain M, et al. Procalcitonin to initiate or discontinue antibiotics in acute respiratory tract infections. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012;9:CD007498.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Corti C, Fally M, Fabricius-Bjerre A, et al. Point-of-care procalcitonin test to reduce antibiotic exposure in patients hospitalized with acute exacerbation of COPD. Int J Chron Obstruct Pulmon Dis. 2016;11:1381–1389.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stolz D. Procalcitonin in severe community-acquired pneumonia: some precision medicine ready for prime time. Chest. 2016;150(4):769–771.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meili M, Kutz A, Briel M, et al. Infection biomarkers in primary care patients with acute respiratory tract infections - comparison of Procalcitonin and C-reactive protein. BMC Pulm Med. 2016;16:43.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Le Bel J, Hausfater P, Chenevier-Gobeaux C, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of C-reactive protein and procalcitonin in suspected community-acquired pneumonia adults visiting emergency department and having a systematic thoracic CT scan. Crit Care. 2015;19:366.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nouvenne A, Ticinesi A, Folesani G, et al. The association of serum procalcitonin and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein with pneumonia in elderly multimorbid patients with respiratory symptoms: retrospective cohort study. BMC Geriatr. 2016;16:16.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brink AJ, Van Wyk J, Moodley VM, et al. The role of appropriate diagnostic testing in acute respiratory tract infections: an antibiotic stewardship strategy to minimise diagnostic uncertainty in primary care. S Afr Med J. 2016;106(6):30–37.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suzuki Y, Itoh H, Katagiri F, et al. Development and clinical application of an enzyme immunoassay for the determination of midregional proadrenomedullin. J Pept Sci. 2013;19(1):59–63.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• España PP, Capelastegui A, Mar C, et al. Performance of pro-adrenomedullin for identifying adverse outcomes in community-acquired pneumonia. J Infect. 2015;70(5):457–466.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kolditz M, Halank M, Schulte-Hubbert B, et al. Copeptin predicts clinical deterioration and persistent instability in community-acquired pneumonia. Respir Med. 2012;106(9):1320–1328.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zuur-Telgen MC, Brusse-Keizer MG, VanderValk PD, et al. Stable-state midrange-proadrenomedullin level is a strong predictor of mortality in patients with COPD. Chest. 2014;145(3):534–541.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pereira JM, Azevedo A, Basílio C, et al. Mid-regional proadrenomedullin: an early marker of response in critically ill patients with severe community-acquired pneumonia? Rev Port Pneumol (2006). 2016;22(6):308–314.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lin Q, Fu F, Chen H, et al. Copeptin in the assessment of acute lung injury and cardiogenic pulmonary edema. Respir Med. 2012;106(9):1268–1277.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stolz D, Christ-Crain M, Morgenthaler NG, et al. Copeptin, C-reactive protein, and procalcitonin as prognostic biomarkers in acute exacerbation of COPD. Chest. 2007;131(4):1058–1067.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krüger S, Papassotiriou J, Marre R, et al. Pro-atrial natriuretic peptide and pro-vasopressin to predict severity and prognosis in community-acquired pneumonia: results from the German competence network CAPNETZ. Intensive Care Med. 2007;33(12):2069–2078.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rello J, Perez A. Precision medicine for the treatment of severe pneumonia in intensive care. Expert Rev Respir Med. 2016;10(3):297–316.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dy R, Sethi S. The lung microbiome and exacerbations of COPD. Curr Opin Pulm Med. 2016;22(3):196–202.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bafadhel M, McKenna S, Terry S, et al. Acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: identification of biologic clusters and their biomarkers. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2011;184(6):662–671.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang Z, Bafadhel M, Haldar K, et al. Lung microbiome dynamics in COPD exacerbations. Eur Respir J. 2016;47(4):1082–1092.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pragman AA, Kim HB, Reilly CS, et al. The lung microbiome in moderate and severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. PLoS One. 2012;7(10):e47305.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cameron SJ, Lewis KE, Huws SA, et al. Metagenomic sequencing of the chronic obstructive pulmonary disease upper bronchial tract microbiome reveals functional changes associated with disease severity. PLoS One. 2016;11(2):e0149095.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suau SJ, DeBlieux PM. Management of acute exacerbation of asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in the emergency department. Emerg Med Clin North Am. 2016;34(1):15–37.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martinez FJ, Curtis JL, Albert R. Role of macrolide therapy in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Int J Chron Obstruct Pulmon Dis. 2008;3(3):331–350.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Barnes PJ. Corticosteroid resistance in patients with asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2013;131(3):636–645.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pettigrew MM, Tsuji BT, Gent JF, et al. Effect of fluoroquinolones and macrolides on eradication and resistance of Haemophilus influenzae in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2016;60(7):4151–4158.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Giusti M, Blasi F, Iori I, et al. Prulifloxacin vs levofloxacin for exacerbation of COPD after failure of other antibiotics. COPD. 2016;13(5):555–560.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sethi S, Anzueto A, Miravitlles M, et al. Determinants of bacteriological outcomes in exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Infection. 2016;44(1):65–76.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ruppé E, Baud D, Schicklin S, et al. Clinical metagenomics for the management of hospital- and healthcare-acquired pneumonia. Future Microbiol. 2016;11(3):427–439.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Viasus D, Vecino-Moreno M, De La Hoz JM, et al. Antibiotic stewardship in community-acquired pneumonia. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2016. DOI:10.1080/14787210.2017.1274232
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barlam TF, Cosgrove SE, Abbo LM, et al. Executive summary: implementing an antibiotic stewardship program: guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society of America and the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2016;62(10):1197–1202.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carugati M, Franzetti F, Wiemken T, et al. De-escalation therapy among bacteraemic patients with community-acquired pneumonia. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2015;21(10):936.e11–e18.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Restrepo MI, Sole-Violan J, Martin-Loeches I. Macrolide therapy of pneumonia: is it necessary, and how does it help? Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2016;29(2):212–217.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee JS, Giesler DL, Gellad WF, et al. Antibiotic therapy for adults hospitalized with community-acquired pneumonia: a systematic review. JAMA. 2016;315(6):593–602.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Belforti RK, Lagu T, Haessler S, et al. Association between initial route of fluoroquinolone administration and outcomes in patients hospitalized for community-acquired pneumonia. Clin Infect Dis. 2016;63(1):1–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Postma DF, van Werkhoven CH, van Elden LJ, et al. Antibiotic treatment strategies for community-acquired pneumonia in adults. N Engl J Med. 2015;372(14):1312–1323.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bender MT, Niederman MS. Lessons learned from 2 decades of CAP therapy data: ways to improve patient management. J Thorac Dis. 2016;8(6):E455–E459.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee JH, Kim HJ, Kim YH. Is β-lactam plus macrolide more effective than β-lactam plus Fluoroquinolone among patients with severe community-acquired pneumonia?: a systemic review and meta-analysis. J Korean Med Sci. 2017;32(1):77–84.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Llop CJ, Tuttle E, Tillotson GS, et al. Antibiotic treatment patterns, costs, and resource utilization among patients with community acquired pneumonia: a US cohort study. Hosp Pract (1995). 2017;45(1):1–8.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rhedin S, Galanis I, Granath F, et al. Narrow-spectrum β-lactam monotherapy in hospital treatment of community acquired pneumonia - A register based cohort study. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2016. DOI:10.1016/j.cmi.2016.12.015.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aliberti S, Cilloniz C, Chalmers JD, et al. Multidrug-resistant pathogens in hospitalised patients coming from the community with pneumonia: a European perspective. Thorax. 2013;68(11):997–999.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aliberti S, Di Pasquale M, Zanaboni AM, et al. Stratifying risk factors for multidrug-resistant pathogens in hospitalized patients coming from the community with pneumonia. Clin Infect Dis. 2012;54(4):470–478.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Webb BJ, Dascomb K, Stenehjem E, et al. Derivation and multicenter validation of the drug resistance in Pneumonia Clinical Prediction Score. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2016;60(5):2652–2663.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aliberti S, Reyes LF, Faverio P, et al. Global initiative for meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus pneumonia (GLIMP): an international, observational cohort study. Lancet Infect Dis. 2016;16(12):1364–1376.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aliberti S, Peyrani P, Filardo G, et al. Association between time to clinical stability and outcomes after discharge in hospitalized patients with community-acquired pneumonia. Chest. 2011;140(2):482–488.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Uranga A, España PP, Bilbao A, et al. Duration of antibiotic treatment in community-acquired pneumonia. A multicenter randomized clinical trial. JAMA Intern Med. 2016;176(9):1257–1265.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ramphal R. A position paper on the treatment of hospital acquired pneumonia (HAP): do we need guidelines? Acta Clin Belg. 2002;57(4):202–206.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Daniels LM, Juliano J, Marx A, et al. Inhaled antibiotics for hospital-acquired and ventilator-associated pneumonia. Clin Infect Dis. 2016. DOI:10.1093/cid/ciw726
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pugh R, Grant C, Cooke RP, et al. Short-course versus prolonged-course antibiotic therapy for hospital-acquired pneumonia in critically ill adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;8:CD007577.
   Google Scholar
• Shorr AF, Zilberberg MD, Micek ST, et al. Viruses are prevalent in non-ventilated hospital-acquired pneumonia. Respir Med. 2017;122:76–80.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldman N, Loebinger MR, Wilson R. Long-term antibiotic treatment for non-cystic fibrosis bronchiectasis in adults: evidence, current practice and future use. Expert Rev Respir Med. 2016;10(12):1259–1268.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hnin K, Nguyen C, Carson KV, et al. Prolonged antibiotics for non-cystic fibrosis bronchiectasis in children and adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;8:CD001392.
   Google Scholar
• Sugianto TD, Chan HK. Inhaled antibiotics in the treatment of non-cystic fibrosis bronchiectasis: clinical and drug delivery perspectives. Expert Opin Drug Deliv. 2016;13(1):7–22.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang JW, Fan LC, Lu HW, et al. Efficacy and safety of long-term inhaled antibiotic for patients with noncystic fibrosis bronchiectasis: a meta-analysis. Clin Respir J. 2016;10(6):731–739.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brodt AM, Stovold E, Zhang L. Antibiotic therapy for stable non-CF bronchiectasis in adults - A systematic review. Eur Respir J. 2014;44(2):382–393.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hill AT. Macrolides for clinically significant bronchiectasis in adults: who should receive this treatment? Chest. 2016;150(6):1187–1193.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hill AT, Routh C, Welham S. National BTS bronchiectasis audit 2012: is the quality standard being adhered to in adult secondary care? Thorax. 2014;69(3):292–294.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Serisier DJ, Martin ML, McGuckin MA, et al. Effect of long-term, low-dose erythromycin on pulmonary exacerbations among patients with non–cystic fibrosis bronchiectasis the BLESS randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2013;309(12):1260–1267.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wong C, Jayaram L, Karalus N, et al. Azithromycin for prevention of exacerbations in non-cystic fibrosis bronchiectasis (EMBRACE): a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2012;380(9842):660–667.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Altenburg J, de Graaff CS, Stienstra Y, et al. Effect of azithromycin maintenance treatment on infectious exacerbations among patients with non-cystic fibrosis bronchiectasis: the BAT randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2013;309(12):1251–1259.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fan LC, Lu HW, Wei P, et al. Effects of long-term use of macrolides in patients with non-cystic fibrosis bronchiectasis: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. BMC Infect Dis. 2015;15:160.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Semedo D Positive trial results of pulmaquin reported for non-CF bronchiectasis patients with chronic lung infections. [cited 2017 Feb 5]. Available from: https://lungdiseasenews.com/2016/12/06/positive-results-pulmaquin-reported-non-cf-bronchiectasis-lung-infections/
   Google Scholar
• De Soyza A, Aksamit T, Bandel T-J, et al. Ciprofloxacin DPI 32.5mg b.d. administered 14 day on/off or 28 day on/off vs placebo for 48 weeks in subjects with non-cystic fibrosis bronchiectasis (NCFB) [abstract]. Eur Respir J. 2016;48(Suppl. 60):OA272.
   Google Scholar
• Faverio P, Stainer A, Bonaiti G, et al. Characterizing non-tuberculous mycobacteria infection in bronchiectasis. Int J Mol Sci. 2016;17(11):1913.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mogayzel PJ Jr, Naureckas ET, Robinson KA, et al. Cystic fibrosis pulmonary guidelines. Chronic medications for maintenance of lung health. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2013;187(7):680–689.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chmiel JF, Aksamit TR, Chotirmall SH, et al. Antibiotic management of lung infections in cystic fibrosis. I. The microbiome, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, gram-negative bacteria, and multiple infections. Ann Am Thorac Soc. 2014;11(7):1120–1129.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chmiel JF, Aksamit TR, Chotirmall SH, et al. Antibiotic management of lung infections in cystic fibrosis. II. Nontuberculous mycobacteria, anaerobic bacteria, and fungi. Ann Am Thorac Soc. 2014;11(8):1298–1306.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Elphick HE, Scott A. Single versus combination intravenous anti-pseudomonal antibiotic therapy for people with cystic fibrosis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016;12:CD002007.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Remmington T, Jahnke N, Harkensee C. Oral anti-pseudomonal antibiotics for cystic fibrosis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016;7:CD005405.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Waters V, Ratjen F. Standard versus biofilm antimicrobial susceptibility testing to guide antibiotic therapy in cystic fibrosis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;3:CD009528.
   Google Scholar
• Winstanley C, O’Brien S, Brockhurst MA. Pseudomonas aeruginosa evolutionary adaptation and diversification in cystic fibrosis chronic lung infections. Trends Microbiol. 2016;24(5):327–337.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van de Kerkhove C, Goeminne PC, Kicinski M, et al. Continuous alternating inhaled antibiotic therapy in CF: a single center retrospective analysis. J Cyst Fibros. 2016;15(6):802–808.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Flume PA, Clancy JP, Retsch-Bogart GZ, et al. Continuous alternating inhaled antibiotics for chronic pseudomonal infection in cystic fibrosis. J Cyst Fibros. 2016;15(6):809–815.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Langton Hewer SC, Smyth AR. Antibiotic strategies for eradicating Pseudomonas aeruginosa in people with cystic fibrosis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014 Nov;10(11):CD004197.
   Google Scholar
• Nichols DP, Happoldt CL, Bratcher PE, et al. Impact of azithromycin on the clinical and antimicrobial effectiveness of tobramycin in the treatment of cystic fibrosis. J Cyst Fibros. 2016. DOI:10.1016/j.jcf.2016.12.003.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Floto RA, Olivier KN, Saiman L, et al. US Cystic Fibrosis Foundation and European Cystic Fibrosis Society consensus recommendations for the management of non-tuberculous mycobacteria in individuals with cystic fibrosis: executive summary. Thorax. 2016;71(1):88–90.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bender MT, Niederman MS. Principles of antibiotic management of community-acquired pneumonia. Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 2016;37(6):905–912.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hakim P, Gilbane A, Schlegel R. PHP359 - Launching novel antibiotics: access opportunities and resistance in European markets [abstract]. Value Health. 2016;19:A503.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fernandes P, Martens E. Antibiotics in late clinical development. Biochem Pharmacol. 2016. DOI:10.1016/j.bcp.2016.09.025.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• El Hajj MS, Turgeon RD, Wilby KJ. Ceftaroline fosamil for community-acquired pneumonia and skin and skin structure infections: a systematic review. Int J Clin Pharm. 2017;39:26–32. DOI:10.1007/s11096-016-0417-z
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Montravers P, Harpan A, Guivarch E. Current and future considerations for the treatment of hospital-acquired pneumonia. Adv Ther. 2016;33(2):151–166.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Purrello SM, Garau J, Giamarellos E, et al. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections: a review of the currently available treatment options. J Glob Antimicrob Resist. 2016;7:178–186.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Viasus D, Ramos O, Ramos L, et al. Solithromycin for the treatment of community-acquired bacterial pneumonia. Expert Rev Respir Med. 2017;11(1):5–12.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Duin D, Bonomo RA. Ceftazidime/avibactam and ceftolozane/tazobactam: second-generation β-lactam/β-lactamase inhibitor combinations. Clin Infect Dis. 2016;63(2):234–241.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liapikou A, Torres A. Emerging drugs for nosocomial pneumonia. Expert Opin Emerg Drugs. 2016;21(3):331–334.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gelfand MS, Cleveland KO. Ceftolozane/Tazobactam Therapy of Respiratory Infections due to Multidrug-Resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Clin Infect Dis. 2015;61(5):853–855.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Müller-Redetzky H, Lienau J, Suttorp N, et al. Therapeutic strategies in pneumonia: going beyond antibiotics. Eur Respir Rev. 2015;24(137):516–524.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cazzola M, Page CP, Calzetta L, et al. Emerging anti-inflammatory strategies for COPD. Eur Respir J. 2012;40(3):724–741.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burr LD, Rogers GB, Chen AC, et al. Macrolide treatment inhibits Pseudomonas aeruginosa quorum sensing in non-cystic fibrosis bronchiectasis. An analysis from the Bronchiectasis and Low-Dose Erythromycin Study Trial. Ann Am Thorac Soc. 2016;13(10):1697–1703.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung. Global strategy for the diagnosis, management and prevention of COPD, global initiative for chronic obstructive lung disease (GOLD). 2017. [cited 2017 Jan 25]. Available from: http://goldcopd.org/gold-2017-global-strategy-diagnosis-management-prevention-copd/
   Google Scholar
• Walters JA, Tan DJ, White CJ, et al. Different durations of corticosteroid therapy for exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014;12:CD006897.
   Google Scholar
• Ding Z, Li X, Lu Y, et al. A randomized, controlled multicentric study of inhaled budesonide and intravenous methylprednisolone in the treatment on acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Respir Med. 2016;121:39–47.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Torres A, Ferrer M. What’s new in severe community-acquired pneumonia? Corticosteroids as adjunctive treatment to antibiotics. Intensive Care Med. 2016;42(8):1276–1278.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sibila O, Luna CM, Agustí C, et al. Effects of glucocorticoids in ventilated piglets with severe pneumonia. Eur Respir J. 2008;32(4):1037–1046.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bi J, Yang J, Wang Y, et al. Efficacy and safety of adjunctive corticosteroids therapy for severe community-acquired pneumonia in adults: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One. 2016;11(11):e0165942.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wirz SA, Blum CA, Schuetz P, et al. Pathogen- and antibiotic-specific effects of prednisone in community-acquired pneumonia. Eur Respir J. 2016;48(4):1150–1159.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Polverino E, Cillóniz C, Dambrava P, et al. Systemic corticosteroids for community-acquired pneumonia: reasons for use and lack of benefit on outcome. Respirology. 2013;18(2):263–271.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meijvis SC, Hardeman H, Remmelts HH, et al. Dexamethasone and length of hospital stay in patients with community-acquired pneumonia: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2011;377(9782):2023–2030.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Torres A, Sibila O, Ferrer M, et al. Effect of corticosteroids on treatment failure among hospitalized patients with severe community-acquired pneumonia and high inflammatory response: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2015;313(7):677–686.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liapikou A, Torres A. The clinical management of lower respiratory tract infections. Expert Rev Respir Med. 2016;10(4):441–452.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chalmers JD, Short PM, Mandal P, et al. Statins in community acquired pneumonia: evidence from experimental and clinical studies. Respir Med. 2010;104(8):1081–1091.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Havers F, Bramley AM, Finelli L, et al. Statin use and hospital length of stay among adults hospitalized with community-acquired pneumonia. Clin Infect Dis. 2016;62(12):1471–1478.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crowley JC, Gropper MA, Immunoglobulin: IV. A useful tool for the severe pneumonia toolbox? Crit Care Med. 2016;44(1):250–251.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tagami T, Matsui H, Fushimi K, et al. Intravenous immunoglobulin and mortality in pneumonia patients with septic shock: an observational nationwide study. Clin Infect Dis. 2015;61(3):385–392.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Welte T, Dellinger RP, Ebelt H, et al. Concept for a study design in patients with severe community-acquired pneumonia: a randomised controlled trial with a novel IGM-enriched immunoglobulin preparation - The CIGMA study. Respir Med. 2015;109(6):758–767.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aliberti S, Mantero M, Mirsaeidi M, et al. The role of vaccination in preventing pneumococcal disease in adults. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2014;20(Suppl 5):52–58.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chang MS, Woo JH. The prevention of pneumococcal infections. Clin Exp Vaccine Res. 2016;5(1):3–5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Criner GJ, Bourbeau J, Diekemper RL, et al. Prevention of acute exacerbations of COPD: American College of Chest Physicians and Canadian Thoracic Society Guideline. Chest. 2015;147(4):894–942.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sanei F, Wilkinson T. Influenza vaccination for patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: understanding immunogenicity, efficacy and effectiveness. Ther Adv Respir Dis. 2016;10(4):349–367.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liapikou A, Torres A. Pharmacotherapy for lower respiratory tract infections. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2014;15(16):2307–2318.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sethi S, Jones PW, Theron MS, et al. Pulsed moxifloxacin for the prevention of exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a randomized controlled trial. Respir Res. 2010;11:10.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cazzola M, Rogliani P, Ora J, et al. Treatment options for moderate-to-very severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2016;17(7):977–988.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Herath SC, Poole P. Prophylactic antibiotic therapy for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;11:CD009764.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cazzola M, Rogliani P. LABA/LAMA combinations instead of LABA/ICS combinations may prevent or delay exacerbations of COPD in some patients. Evid Based Med. 2016;21(6):222.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tay GT, Reid DW, Bell SC. Inhaled antibiotics in Cystic Fibrosis (CF) and non-CF bronchiectasis. Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 2015;36(2):267–286.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baquero F, Coque TM. de la Cruz F. Ecology and evolution as targets: the need for novel eco-evo drugs and strategies to fight antibiotic resistance. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2011;55(8):3649–3660.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rello J, Bunsow E, Perez A. What if there were no new antibiotics? A look at alternatives. Expert Rev Clin Pharmacol. 2016;9(12):1547–1555.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar