Treatment options and considerations for hypertensive patients to prevent dementia

References

• Wortmann M. Dementia: a global health priority- highlights from an ADI and World Health Organization report. Alzheimers Res Ther. 2012;4:40.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whitehouse P. Dementia drug development: use of information systems to harmonize global drug development. Psychopharmacol Bull. 1997;33(1):129–133.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cummings JL. Alzheimer’s disease. N Engl J Med. 2004;351(1):56–67.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reinman EM, McKhann GM, Albert MS, et al. Disease: implications of the updated diagnostic and research criteria. J Clin Psychiatry. 2011;72(9):1190–1196.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Langa KM, Foster NL, Larson EB. Mixed dementia: emerging concepts and therapeutic implications. J Am Med Assoc. 2004;292:2901–2908.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moorhouse P. Vascular cognitive impairment: current concepts and clinical developments. Lancet Neurol. 2008;7(3):246–255.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Viswanathan A, Rocca WA, Tzourio C. Vascular risk factors and dementia: how to move forward? Neurology. 2009;72(4):368–374.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petersen RC. Mild cognitive impairment as a diagnostic entity. J Intern Med. 2004;256(3):183–194.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Portet F, Ousset PJ, Visser PJ, et al. Mild cognitive impairment (MCI) in medical practice: a critical review of the concept and new diagnostic procedure. Report of the MCI working group of the European Consortium on Alzheimer’s Disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2006;77(6):714–718.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li J, Wang YJ, Zhang M, et al. Chongqing ageing study group. Vascular risk factors promote conversion from mild cognitive impairment to Alzheimer disease. Neurology. 2011;76:1485–1491.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xu W, Tan L, Wang HF, et al. Meta-analysis of modifiable risk factors for Alzheimer’s disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2015;86:1299–1306.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duron E, Hanon O. Vascular risk factors, cognitive decline, and dementia. Vasc Health Risk Manag. 2008;4:363–381.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• de la Torre JC. Is Alzheimer’s disease a neurodegenerative or a vascular disorder? Data, dogma, and dialectics. Lancet Neurol. 2004;3:184–190.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Qiu C, Winblad B, Fratiglioni L. The age-dependent relation of blood pressure to cognitive function and dementia. Lancet Neurol. 2005;4(8):487–499.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skoog I, Lernfelt B, Landahl S, et al. 15-year longitudinal study of blood pressure and dementia. Lancet. 1996;347:1141–1145.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tzourio C, Dufouil C, Ducimetière P, et al. Cognitive decline in individuals with high blood pressure: a longitudinal study in the elderly. EVA Study Group. Epidemiology of vascular aging. Neurology. 1999;53(9):1948–1952.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murray MD, Lane KA, Gao S, et al. Preservation of cognitive function with antihypertensive medications: a longitudinal analysis of a community-based sample of African Americans. Arch Intern Med. 2002;162(18):2090–2096.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hajjar I, Catoe H, Sixta S, et al. Cross-sectional and longitudinal association between antihypertensive medications and cognitive impairment in an elderly population. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2005;60(1):67–73.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peila R, White LR, Masaki K, et al. Reducing the risk of dementia: efficacy of long-term treatment of hypertension. Stroke J Cereb Circ. 2006;37(5):1165–1170.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Korf ESC, White LR, Scheltens P, et al. Midlife blood pressure and the risk of hippocampal atrophy: the Honolulu Asia Aging Study. Hypertension. 2004;44(1):29–34.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hanon O, Berrou J-P, Negre-Pages L, et al. Effects of hypertension therapy based on eprosartan on systolic arterial blood pressure and cognitive function: primary results of the Observational Study on Cognitive function And Systolic Blood Pressure Reduction open-label study. J Hypertens. 2008;26(8):1642–1650.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sink KM, Leng X, Williamson J, et al. Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and cognitive decline in older adults with hypertension: results from the Cardiovascular Health Study. Arch Intern Med. 2009;169(13):1195–1202.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soto ME, van Kan GA, Nourhashemi F, et al. Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and Alzheimer’s disease progression in older adults: results from the réseau sur la maladie d’Alzheimer Français cohort. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2013;61(9):1482–1488.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peters R, Collerton J, Granic A, et al. Antihypertensive drug use and risk of cognitive decline in the very old: an observational study - the Newcastle 85+ Study. J Hypertens. 2015;33(10):2156–2164.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dubois B, Feldman HH, Jacova C, et al. Revising the definition of Alzheimer’s disease: a new lexicon. Lancet Neurol. 2010;9(11):1118–1127.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zuccala G, Onder G, Marzetti E, et al. Use of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and variations in cognitive performance among patients with heart failure. Eur Heart J. 2005;26(3):226–233.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Qiu C, von Strauss E, Fastbom J, et al. Low blood pressure and risk of dementia in the Kungsholmen project: a 6-year follow-up study. Arch Neurol. 2003;60(2):223–228.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Khachaturian AS, Zandi PP, Lyketsos CG, et al. Antihypertensive medication use and incident Alzheimer disease: the cache county study. Arch Neurol. 2006;63(5):686–692.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li N-C, Lee A, Whitmer RA, et al. Use of angiotensin receptor blockers and risk of dementia in a predominantly male population: prospective cohort analysis. Bmj. 2010;340:b5465.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davies NM, Kehoe PG, Ben-Shlomo Y, et al. Associations of anti-hypertensive treatments with Alzheimer’s disease, vascular dementia, and other dementias. J Alzheimers Dis. 2011;26(4):699–708.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson ML, Parikh N, Kunik ME, et al. Antihypertensive drug use and the risk of dementia in patients with diabetes mellitus. Alzheimers Dement J Alzheimers Assoc. 2012;8(5):437–444.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haag MDM, Hofman A, Koudstaal PJ, et al. Duration of antihypertensive drug use and risk of dementia: a prospective cohort study. Neurology. 2009;72(20):1727–1734.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• In’t Veld BA, Ruitenberg A, Hofman A, et al. Antihypertensive drugs and incidence of dementia: the Rotterdam Study. Neurobiol Aging. 2001;22(3):407–412.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morris MC, Scherr PA, Hebert LE, et al. Association of incident Alzheimer disease and blood pressure measured from 13 years before to 2 years after diagnosis in a large community study. Arch Neurol. 2001;58(10):1640–1646.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lindsay J, Laurin D, Verreault R, et al. Risk factors for Alzheimer’s disease: a prospective analysis from the Canadian Study of Health and Aging. Am J Epidemiol. 2002;156(5):445–453.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yasar S, Corrada M, Brookmeyer R, et al. Calcium channel blockers and risk of AD: the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging. Neurobiol Aging. 2005;26(2):157–163.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prevention of stroke by antihypertensive drug treatment in older persons with isolated systolic hypertension. Final results of the Systolic Hypertension in the Elderly Program (SHEP). SHEP Cooperative Research Group. J Am Med Assoc. 1991;265(24):3255–3264.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Applegate WB, Pressel S, Wittes J, et al. Impact of the treatment of isolated systolic hypertension on behavioral variables. Results from the systolic hypertension in the elderly program. Arch Intern Med. 1994;154(19):2154–2160.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Di Bari M, Pahor M, Franse LV, et al. Dementia and disability outcomes in large hypertension trials: lessons learned from the systolic hypertension in the elderly program (SHEP) trial. Am J Epidemiol. 2001;153(1):72–78.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Medical research council trial of treatment of hypertension in older adults: principal results. MRC Working Party. Bmj. 1992;304(6824):405–412.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prince MJ, Bird AS, Blizard RA, et al. Is the cognitive function of older patients affected by antihypertensive treatment? Results from 54 months of the Medical Research Council’s trial of hypertension in older adults. Bmj. 1996;312(7034):801–805.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Staessen JA, Fagard R, Thijs L, et al. Randomised double-blind comparison of placebo and active treatment for older patients with isolated systolic hypertension. The Systolic Hypertension in Europe (Syst-Eur) Trial Investigators. Lancet. 1997;350(9080):757–764.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Forette F, Seux ML, Staessen JA, et al. Prevention of dementia in randomised double-blind placebo-controlled Systolic Hypertension in Europe (Syst-Eur) trial. Lancet. 1998;352(9137):1347–1351.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Forette F, Seux M-L, Staessen JA, et al. The prevention of dementia with antihypertensive treatment: new evidence from the Systolic Hypertension in Europe (Syst-Eur) study. Arch Intern Med. 2002;162(18):2046–2052.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yusuf S, Sleight P, Pogue J, et al. Effects of an angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitor, ramipril, on cardiovascular events in high-risk patients. The heart outcomes prevention evaluation study investigators. N Engl J Med. 2000;342(3):145–153.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bosch J, Yusuf S, Pogue J, et al. Use of ramipril in preventing stroke: double blind randomised trial. Bmj. 2002;324(7339):699–702.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tzourio C, Anderson C, Chapman N, et al. Effects of blood pressure lowering with perindopril and indapamide therapy on dementia and cognitive decline in patients with cerebrovascular disease. Arch Intern Med. 2003;163(9):1069–1075.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lithell H, Hansson L, Skoog I, et al. The Study on Cognition and Prognosis in the Elderly (SCOPE): principal results of a randomized double-blind intervention trial. J Hypertens. 2003;21(5):875–886.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beckett NS, Peters R, Fletcher AE, et al. Treatment of hypertension in patients 80 years of age or older. N Engl J Med. 2008;358(18):1887–1898.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peters R, Beckett N, Forette F, et al. Incident dementia and blood pressure lowering in the Hypertension in the Very Elderly Trial cognitive function assessment (HYVET-COG): a double-blind, placebo controlled trial. Lancet Neurol. 2008;7(8):683–689.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diener H-C, Sacco RL, Yusuf S, et al. Effects of aspirin plus extended-release dipyridamole versus clopidogrel and telmisartan on disability and cognitive function after recurrent stroke in patients with ischaemic stroke in the Prevention Regimen for Effectively Avoiding Second Strokes (PRoFESS) trial: a double-blind, active and placebo-controlled study. Lancet Neurol. 2008;7(10):875–884.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson C, Teo K, Gao P, et al. Renin-angiotensin system blockade and cognitive function in patients at high risk of cardiovascular disease: analysis of data from the ONTARGET and TRANSCEND studies. Lancet Neurol. 2011;10(1):43–53.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rouch L, Cestac P, Hanon O, et al. Antihypertensive drugs, prevention of cognitive decline and dementia: a systematic review of observational studies, randomized controlled trials and meta-analyses, with discussion of potential mechanisms. CNS Drugs. 2015;29(2):113–130.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chang-Quan H, Hui W, Chao-Min W, et al. The association of antihypertensive medication use with risk of cognitive decline and dementia: a meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Int J Clin Pract. 2011;65(12):1295–1305.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feigin V, Ratnasabapathy Y, Anderson C. Does blood pressure lowering treatment prevents dementia or cognitive decline in patients with cardiovascular and cerebrovascular disease? J Neurol Sci. 2005;229-230:151–155.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guan J-W, Huang C-Q, Li Y-H, et al. No association between hypertension and risk for Alzheimer’s disease: a meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. J Alzheimers Dis. 2011;27(4):799–807.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Birkenhäger WH, Staessen JA. Progress in cardiovascular diseases: cognitive function in essential hypertension. Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 2006;49(1):1–10.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGuinness B, Todd S, Passmore P, et al. Blood pressure lowering in patients without prior cerebrovascular disease for prevention of cognitive impairment and dementia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev Online. 2009;4:CD004034.
   Google Scholar
• Levi Marpillat N, Macquin-Mavier I, Tropeano A-I, et al. Antihypertensive classes, cognitive decline and incidence of dementia: a network meta-analysis. J Hypertens. 2013;31(6):1073–1082.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strandgaard S, Paulson OB. Cerebrovascular consequences of hypertension. Lancet. 1994;344:519–520.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hainsworth AH, Markus HS. Do in vivo experimental models reflect human cerebral small vessel disease? A systematic review. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab. 2008;28(12):1877–1891.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liao D, Cooper L, Cai J, et al. Presence and severity of cerebral white matter lesions and hypertension, its treatment, and its control. The ARIC Study. Atherosclerosis risk in communities study. Stroke J Cereb Circ. 1996;27(12):2262–2270.
   Google Scholar
• Suter O-C, Sunthorn T, Kraftsik R, et al. Cerebral hypoperfusion generates cortical watershed microinfarcts in Alzheimer disease. Stroke J Cereb Circ. 2002;33(8):1986–1992.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jokinen H, Kalska H, Ylikoski R, et al. LADIS group. Longitudinal cognitive decline in subcortical ischemic vascular disease – the LADIS Study. Cerebrovasc Dis. 2009;27(4):384–391.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pasquier F, Leys D. Why are stroke patients prone to develop dementia? J Neurol. 1997;244(3):135–142.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dufouil C, Chalmers J, Coskun O, et al. Effects of blood pressure lowering on cerebral white matter hyperintensities in patients with stroke: the PROGRESS (Perindopril protection against recurrent stroke study) Magnetic resonance imaging substudy. Circulation. 2005;112(11):1644–1650.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sun X, He G, Qing H, et al. Hypoxia facilitates Alzheimer’s disease pathogenesis by up-regulating BACE1 gene expression. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2006;103:18727–18732.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hardy JA, Mann DM, Wester P, et al. An integrative hypothesis concerning the pathogenesis and progression of Alzheimer’s disease. Neurobiol Aging. 1986;7(6):489–502.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berridge MJ. Calcium signaling and Alzheimer’s disease. Neurochem Res. 2011;36(7):1149–1156.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thibault O, Gant JC, Landfield PW. Expansion of the calcium hypothesis of brain aging and Alzheimer’s disease: minding the store. Aging Cell. 2007;6(3):307–317.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thibault O, Landfield PW. Increase in single L-type calcium channels in hippocampal neurons during aging. Science. 1996;272(5264):1017–1020.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pierrot N, Ghisdal P, Caumont A-S, et al. Intraneuronal amyloid-beta1-42 production triggered by sustained increase of cytosolic calcium concentration induces neuronal death. J Neurochem. 2004;88(5):1140–1150.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Querfurth HW, Selkoe DJ. Calcium ionophore increases amyloid beta peptide production by cultured cells. Biochemistry (Mosc). 1994;33(15):4550–4561.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mattson MP. Antigenic changes similar to those seen in neurofibrillary tangles are elicited by glutamate and Ca2+ influx in cultured hippocampal neurons. Neuron. 1990;4(1):105–117.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nixon RA. The calpains in aging and aging-related diseases. Ageing Res Rev. 2003;2(4):407–418.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Green KN, LaFerla FM. Linking calcium to Abeta and Alzheimer’s disease. Neuron. 2008;59(2):190–194.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuchibhotla KV, Goldman ST, Lattarulo CR, et al. Abeta plaques lead to aberrant regulation of calcium homeostasis in vivo resulting in structural and functional disruption of neuronal networks. Neuron. 2008;59(2):214–225.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yu J-T, Chang R-C-C, Tan L. Calcium dysregulation in Alzheimer’s disease: from mechanisms to therapeutic opportunities. Prog Neurobiol. 2009;89(3):240–255.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mattson MP. Cellular actions of beta-amyloid precursor protein and its soluble and fibrillogenic derivatives. Physiol Rev. 1997;77(4):1081–1132.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Furukawa K, Wang Y, Yao PJ, et al. Alteration in calcium channel properties is responsible for the neurotoxic action of a familial frontotemporal dementia tau mutation. J Neurochem. 2003;87(2):427–436.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Trompet S, Westendorp RGJ, Kamper AM, et al. Use of calcium antagonists and cognitive decline in old age. The Leiden 85-plus study. Neurobiol Aging. 2008;29(2):306–308.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• López-Arrieta JM, Birks J. Nimodipine for primary degenerative, mixed and vascular dementia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2002;3:CD000147.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Barnes JM, Barnes NM, Costall B, et al. Angiotensin II inhibits acetylcholine release from human temporal cortex: implications for cognition. Brain Res. 1990;507(2):341–343.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oprisiu-Fournier R, Faure S, Mazouz H, et al. Angiotensin AT1-receptor blockers and cerebrovascular protection: do they actually have a cutting edge over angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors? Expert Rev Neurother. 2009;9(9):1289–1305.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moncada S, Palmer RM, Higgs EA. Nitric oxide: physiology, pathophysiology, and pharmacology. Pharmacol Rev. 1991;43(2):109–142.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tuppo EE, Arias HR. The role of inflammation in Alzheimer’s disease. Int J Biochem Cell Biol. 2005;37(2):289–305.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fournier A, Oprisiu-Fournier R, Serot JM, et al. Prevention of dementia by antihypertensive drugs: how AT1-receptor-blockers and dihydropyridines better prevent dementia in hypertensive patients than thiazides and ACE-inhibitors. Expert Rev Neurother. 2009;9(9):1413–1431.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhuang S, Wang HF, Wang X, et al. The association of renin-angiotensin system blockade use with the risks of cognitive impairment of aging and Alzheimer’s disease: a meta-analysis. J Clin Neurosci. 2016;33:32–38.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCabe RD, Bakarich MA, Srivastava K, et al. Potassium inhibits free radical formation. Hypertension. 1994;24(1):77–82.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ishimitsu T, Tobian L, Sugimoto K, et al. High potassium diets reduce vascular and plasma lipid peroxides in stroke-prone spontaneously hypertensive rats. Clin Exp Hypertens. 1996 Jul;18(5):659–673.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Young DB, Ma G. Vascular protective effects of potassium. Semin Nephrol. 1999;19(5):477–486.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen WT, Brace RA, Scott JB, et al. The mechanism of the vasodilator action of potassium. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med. 1972;140(3):820–824.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tully PJ, Hanon O, Cosh S, et al. Diuretic antihypertensive drugs and incident dementia risk: a systematic review, meta-analysis and meta-regression of prospective studies. J Hypertens. 2016;34(6):1027–1035.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gelber RP, Ross GW, Petrovitch H, et al. Antihypertensive medication use and risk of cognitive impairment: the Honolulu-Asia aging study. Neurology. 2013;81(10):888–895.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bellew KM, Pigeon JG, Stang PE, et al. Hypertension and the rate of cognitive decline in patients with dementia of the Alzheimer type. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord. 2004;18(4):208–213.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mielke MM, Rosenberg PB, Tschanz J, et al. Vascular factors predict rate of progression in Alzheimer disease. Neurology. 2007;69(19):1850–1858.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duron E, Rigaud AS, Dubail D, et al. Effects of antihypertensive therapy on cognitive decline in Alzheimer’s disease. Am J Hypertens. 2009;22(9):1020–1024.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rozzini L, Vicini Chilovi B, Bellelli G, et al. Effects of cholinesterase inhibitors appear greater in patients on established antihypertensive therapy. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2005;20(6):547–551.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deschaintre Y, Richard F, Leys D, et al. Treatment of vascular risk factors is associated with slower decline in Alzheimer disease. Neurology. 2009;73(9):674–680.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoffman LB, Schmeidler J, Lesser GT, et al. Alzheimer disease neuropathology in medicated hypertensive than nonhypertensive persons. Neurology. 2009;72(20):1720–1726.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar