Pharmacotherapeutic management of co-morbid alcohol and opioid use

References

• Wang L, Min JE, Krebs E, et al. Polydrug use and its association with drug treatment outcomes among primary heroin, methamphetamine, and cocaine users. Int J Drug Policy. 2017;49:32–40.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blanco-Gandía MC, Rodríguez-Arias M. Pharmacological treatments for opiate and alcohol addiction: A historical perspective of the last 50 years. Eur J Pharmacol. 2018;836:89–101.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tarren JR, Bartlett SE. Alcohol and nicotine interactions: pre-clinical models of dependence. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 2016;43:146–154.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCance-Katz EF, Kosten TR, Jatlow P. Concurrent use of cocaine and alcohol is more potent and potentially more toxic than use of either alone–a multiple-dose study. Biol Psychiatry. 1998;44:250–259.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Key substance use and mental health indicators in the United States: Results from the 2017 National Survey on Drug Use and Health (HHS Publication No. SMA 18-5068, NSDUH Series H-53). Rockville, MD: Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration; 2017. Retrieved from https://www.samhsa.gov/data/
   Google Scholar
• Vowles KE, McEntee ML, Julnes PS, et al. Rates of opioid misuse, abuse, and addiction in chronic pain: a systematic review and data synthesis. Pain. 2015;156:569–576.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scholl L, Seth P, Kariisa M, Wilson N, Baldwin G. Drug and Opioid-Involved Overdose Deaths – United States, 2013-2017. Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2019;67:1419–1427.
   Google Scholar
• De Vries TJ, Shippenberg TS. Neural systems underlying opiate addiction. J Neurosci. 2002;22:3321–3325.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kenan K, Mack K, Paulozzi L. Trends in prescriptions for oxycodone and other commonly used opioids in the United States, 2000-2010. Open Med. 2012;6:e41–7.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Shah A, Hayes CJ, Martin BC. Characteristics of initial prescription episodes and likelihood of long-term opioid use - United States, 2006-2015. Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2017;66:265–269.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cicero TJ, Ellis MS, Kasper ZA. Increased use of heroin as an initiating opioid of abuse. Addict Behav. 2017;74:63–66.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bailey CP, Connor M. Opioids: cellular mechanisms of tolerance and physical dependence. Curr Opin Pharmacol. 2005;5:60–68.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robinson TE, Berridge KC. The neural basis of drug craving: an incentive-sensitization theory of addiction. Brain Res Brain Res Rev. 1993;18:247–291.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brownstein MJ. A brief history of opiates, opioid peptides, and opioid receptors. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1993;90:5391–5393.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldstein A, Naidu A. Multiple opioid receptors: ligand selectivity profiles and binding site signatures. Mol Pharmacol. 1989;36:265–272.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Contet C, Kieffer BL, Befort K. Mu opioid receptor: a gateway to drug addiction. Curr Opin Neurobiol. 2004;14:370–378.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shippenberg TS, LeFevour A, Chefer VI. Targeting endogenous mu- and delta-opioid receptor systems for the treatment of drug addiction. CNS Neurol Disord Drug Targets. 2008;7:442–453.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Margolis EB, Hjelmstad GO, Fujita W, et al. Direct bidirectional μ-opioid control of midbrain dopamine neurons. J Neurosci. 2014;34:14707–14716.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gianoulakis C. Endogenous opioids and addiction to alcohol and other drugs of abuse. Curr Top Med Chem. 2009;9:999–1015.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson SW, North RA. Opioids excite dopamine neurons by hyperpolarization of local interneurons. J Neurosci. 1992;12:483–488.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Di Chiara G, Imperato A. Drugs abused by humans preferentially increase synaptic dopamine concentrations in the mesolimbic system of freely moving rats. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1988;85:5274–5278.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spanagel R, Herz A, Shippenberg TS. The effects of opioid peptides on dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens: an in vivo microdialysis study. J Neurochem. 1990;55:1734–1740.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nutt DJ, Lingford-Hughes A, Erritzoe D, et al. The dopamine theory of addiction: 40 years of highs and lows. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2015;16:305–312.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Langlois LD, Nugent FS. Opiates and plasticity in the ventral tegmental area. ACS Chem Neurosci. 2017;8:1830–1838.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saal D, Dong Y, Bonci A, et al. Drugs of abuse and stress trigger a common synaptic adaptation in dopamine neurons. Neuron. 2003;37:577–582.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Authement ME, Langlois LD, Kassis H, et al. Morphine-induced synaptic plasticity in the VTA is reversed by HDAC inhibition. J Neurophysiol. 2016;116:1093–1103.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang D, Berg DJ, Scherrer G. Beware of undertow: opioid drugs generate additional waves of intracellular signaling. Neuron. 2018;98:870–872.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sklair-Tavron L, Shi WX, Lane SB, et al. Chronic morphine induces visible changes in the morphology of mesolimbic dopamine neurons. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1996;93:11202–11207.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robinson TE, Kolb B. Structural plasticity associated with exposure to drugs of abuse. Neuropharmacol. 2004;47(Suppl 1):33–46.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Russo SJ, Bolanos CA, Theobald DE, et al. IRS2-Akt pathway in midbrain dopamine neurons regulates behavioral and cellular responses to opiates. Nat Neurosci. 2007;10:93–99.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Russo SJ, Dietz DM, Dumitriu D, et al. The addicted synapse: mechanisms of synaptic and structural plasticity in nucleus accumbens. Trends Neurosci. 2010;33:267–276.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Connor M, Osborne PB, Christie MJ. Mu-opioid receptor desensitization: is morphine different? Br J Pharmacol. 2004;143:685–696.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• von Zastrow M, Svingos A, Haberstock-Debic H, et al. Regulated endocytosis of opioid receptors: cellular mechanisms and proposed roles in physiological adaptation to opiate drugs. Curr Opin Neurobiol. 2003;13:348–353.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ferguson SS. Evolving concepts in G protein-coupled receptor endocytosis: the role in receptor desensitization and signaling. Pharmacol Rev. 2001;53:1–24.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhou Y, Leri F. Neuroscience of opiates for addiction medicine: from stress-responsive systems to behavior. Prog Brain Res. 2016;223:237–251.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Greenwald MK. Anti-stress neuropharmacological mechanisms and targets for addiction treatment: A translational framework. Neurobiol Stress. 2018;9:84–104.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carcoba LM, Contreras AE, Cepeda-Benito A, et al. Negative affect heightens opiate withdrawal-induced hyperalgesia in heroin dependent individuals. J Addict Dis. 2011;30:258–270.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heinl C, Drdla-Schutting R, Xanthos DN, et al. Distinct mechanisms underlying pronociceptive effects of opioids. J Neurosci. 2011;31:16748–16756.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lyons PJ, Rivosecchi RM, Nery JP, et al. Fentanyl-induced hyperalgesia in acute pain management. J Pain Palliat Care Pharmacother. 2015;29:153–160.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mattick RP, Breen C, Kimber J, et al. Methadone maintenance therapy versus no opioid replacement therapy for opioid dependence. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2009;3:CD002209.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee J, Kresina TF, Campopiano M, et al. Use of pharmacotherapies in the treatment of alcohol use disorders and opioid dependence in primary care. Biomed Res Int. 2015;2015:137020.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dugosh K, Abraham A, Seymour B, et al. A systematic review on the use of psychosocial interventions in conjunction with medications for the treatment of opioid addiction. J Addict Med. 2016;10:93–103.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carroll KM, Weiss RD. The role of behavioral interventions in buprenorphine maintenance treatment: A review. Am J Psychiatry. 2017;174:738–747.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rudd RA, Aleshire N, Zibbell JE, et al. Increases in drug and opioid overdose deaths - United States, 2000-2014. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2016;64:1378–1382.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rzasa Lynn R, Galinkin JL. Naloxone dosage for opioid reversal: current evidence and clinical implications. Ther Adv Drug Saf. 2018;9:63–88.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pilgrim JL, McDonough M, Drummer OH. A review of methadone deaths between 2001 and 2005 in Victoria, Australia. Forensic Sci Int. 2013;226:216–222.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gerra G, Zaimovic A, Rustichelli P, et al. Rapid opiate detoxication in outpatient treatment: relationship with naltrexone compliance. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2000;18:185–191.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCance-Katz EF, Sullivan LE, Nallani S. Drug interactions of clinical importance among the opioids, methadone and buprenorphine, and other frequently prescribed medications: a review. Am J Addict. 2010;19:4–16.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stotts AL, Dodrill CL, Kosten TR. Opioid dependence treatment: options in pharmacotherapy. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2009;10:1727–1740.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petry NM, Bickel WK, Badger GJ. Examining the limits of the buprenorphine interdosing interval: daily, every-third-day and every-fifth-day dosing regimens. Addiction. 2001;96:823–834.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Connock M, Juarez-Garcia A, Jowett S, et al. Methadone and buprenorphine for the management of opioid dependence: a systematic review and economic evaluation. Health Technol Assess. 2007;11(1–171):iii–iv.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fischer G, Gombas W, Eder H, et al. Buprenorphine versus methadone maintenance for the treatment of opioid dependence. Addict. 1999;94:1337–1347.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Connery HS. Medication-assisted treatment of opioid use disorder: review of the evidence and future directions. Harv Rev Psychiatry. 2015;23:63–75.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crews FT, Vetreno RP. Stress and alcohol priming of brain toll-like receptor signaling in alcohol use disorder. Alcohol Alcohol. 2018;53:639–641.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sacks JJ, Gonzales KR, Bouchery EE, et al. 2010 National and state costs of excessive alcohol consumption. Am J Prev Med. 2015;49:e73–e79.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Organization WH. Global status report on alcohol and health. Geneva, Switzerland: 2018.
   Google Scholar
• Malone M, McDonald R, Vittitow A, et al. Extended-release vs. oral naltrexone for alcohol dependence treatment in primary care (XON). Contemp Clin Trials. 2019;81:102–109.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Serdarevic M, Gurka KK, Striley CW, et al. Prevalence of concurrent prescription opioid and hazardous alcohol use among older women: results from a cross-sectional study of community members. J Community Health. 2019;44:172–177.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Preuss UW, Gouzoulis-Mayfrank E, Havemann-Reinecke U, et al. Psychiatric comorbidity in alcohol use disorders: results from the German S3 guidelines. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2018;268:219–229.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vasiliou V, Ziegler TL, Bludeau P, et al. CYP2E1 and catalase influence ethanol sensitivity in the central nervous system. Pharmacogenet Genomics. 2006;16:51–58.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Correa M, Manrique HM, Font L, et al. Reduction in the anxiolytic effects of ethanol by centrally formed acetaldehyde: the role of catalase inhibitors and acetaldehyde-sequestering agents. Psychopharmacol (Berl). 2008;200:455–464.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Font L, Luján M, Pastor R. Involvement of the endogenous opioid system in the psychopharmacological actions of ethanol: the role of acetaldehyde. Front Behav Neurosci. 2013;7:93.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crews FT, Morrow AL, Criswell H, et al. Effects of ethanol on ion channels. Int Rev Neurobiol. 1996;39:283–367.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• You C, Savarese A, Vandegrift BJ, et al. Ethanol acts on KCNK13 potassium channels in the ventral tegmental area to increase firing rate and modulate binge-like drinking. Neuropharmacol. 2019;144:29–36.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vengeliene V, Bilbao A, Molander A, et al. Neuropharmacology of alcohol addiction. Br J Pharmacol. 2008;154:299–315.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rao PS, Bell RL, Engleman EA, et al. Targeting glutamate uptake to treat alcohol use disorders. Front Neurosci. 2015;9:144.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reer KJ, Kalivas PW. Using glutamate homeostasis as a target for treating addictive disorders. Behav Pharmacol. 2010;21:514–522.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anton RF, Schacht JP, Book SW. Pharmacologic treatment of alcoholism. Handb Clin Neurol. 2014;125:527–542.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Foddai M, Dosia G, Spiga S, et al. Acetaldehyde increases dopaminergic neuronal activity in the VTA. Neuropsychopharmacol. 2004;29:530–536.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olive MF, Koenig HN, Nannini MA, et al. Stimulation of endorphin neurotransmission in the nucleus accumbens by ethanol, cocaine, and amphetamine. J Neurosci. 2001;21(1–5):RC184.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Marinelli PW, Bai L, Quirion R, et al. A microdialysis profile of Met-enkephalin release in the rat nucleus accumbens following alcohol administration. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2005;29:1821–1828.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marinelli PW, Lam M, Bai L, et al. A microdialysis profile of dynorphin A1-8 release in the rat nucleus accumbens following alcohol administration. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2006;30:982–990.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marinelli PW, Quirion R, Gianoulakis C. A microdialysis profile of beta-endorphin and catecholamines in the rat nucleus accumbens following alcohol administration. Psychopharmacol (Berl). 2003;169:60–67.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marinelli PW, Quirion R, Gianoulakis C. An in vivo profile of b-endorphin release in the arcuate nucleus and nucleus accumbens following exposure to stress or alcohol. Neurosci. 2004;127:777–784.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jarjour S, Bai L, Gianoulakis C. Effect of acute ethanol administration on the release of opioid peptides from the midbrain including the ventral tegmental area. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2009;33:1033–1043.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lam MP, Marinelli PW, Bai L, et al. Effects of acute ethanol on opioid peptide release in the central amygdala: an in vivo microdialysis study. Psychopharmacol (Berl). 2008;201:261–271.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knox J, Wall M, Witkiewitz K, et al. Reduction in non-abstinent World Health Organization (WHO) drinking risk levels and drug use disorders: 3-year follow-up results in the US general population. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2019;201:16–22.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bryson WC, McConnell J, Korthuis PT, et al. Extended-release naltrexone for alcohol dependence: persistence and healthcare costs and utilization. Am J Manag Care. 2011;17(Suppl 8):S222–34.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Plosker GL. Acamprosate: a review of its use in alcohol dependence. Drugs. 2015;75:1255–1268.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kranzler HR, Soyka M. Diagnosis and pharmacotherapy of alcohol use disorder: A review. JAMA. 2018;320:815–824.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suh JJ, Pettinati HM, Kampman KM, et al. The status of disulfiram: a half of a century later. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2006;26:290–302.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hald J, Jacobsen E. A drug sensitizing the organism to ethyl alcohol. Lancet. 1948;2:1001–1004.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Edenberg HJ. The genetics of alcohol metabolism: role of alcohol dehydrogenase and aldehyde dehydrogenase variants. Alcohol Res Health. 2007;30:5–13.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Peng GS, Yin JH, Wang MF, et al. Alcohol sensitivity in Taiwanese men with different alcohol and aldehyde dehydrogenase genotypes. J Formos Med Assoc. 2002;101:769–774.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fuller RK, Gordis E. Does disulfiram have a role in alcoholism treatment today? Addict. 2004;99:21–24.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tampier L, Quintanilla ME, Israel Y. Tolerance to disulfiram induced by chronic alcohol intake in the rat. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2008;32:937–941.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chick J, Gough K, Falkowski W, et al. Disulfiram treatment of alcoholism. Br J Psychiatry. 1992;161:84–89.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnsen J, Morland J. Disulfiram implant: a double-blind placebo controlled follow-up on treatment outcome. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 1991;15:532–536.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Czirr SA, Hubbell CL, Milano WC, et al. Selected opioids modify intake of sweetened ethanol solution among female rats. Alcohol. 1987;4:157–160.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reid LD, Czirr SA, Bensinger CC, et al. Morphine and diprenorphine together potentiate intake of alcoholic beverages. Alcohol. 1987;4:161–168.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hubbell CL, Czirr SA, Reid LD. Persistence and specificity of small doses of morphine on intake of alcoholic beverages. Alcohol. 1987;4:149–156.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reid LD, Delconte JD, Nichols ML, et al. Tests of opioid deficiency hypotheses of alcoholism. Alcohol. 1991;8:247–257.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Altshuler HL, Phillips PE, Feinhandler DA. Alteration of ethanol self-administration by naltrexone. Life Sci. 1980;26:679–688.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hendershot CS, Wardell JD, Samokhvalov AV, et al. Effects of naltrexone on alcohol self-administration and craving: meta-analysis of human laboratory studies. Addict Biol. 2017;22:1515–1527.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heilig M, Goldman D, Berrettini W, et al. Pharmacogenetic approaches to the treatment of alcohol addiction. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2011;12:670–684.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benjamin D, Grant ER, Pohorecky LA. Naltrexone reverses ethanol-induced dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens in awake, freely moving rats. Brain Res. 1993;621:137–140.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spanagel R, Herz A, Shippenberg TS. Opposing tonically active endogenous opioid systems modulate the mesolimbic dopaminergic pathway. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1992;89:2046–2050.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oswald LM, Wand GS. Opioids and alcoholism. Physiol Behav. 2004;81:339–358.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gonzales RA, Weiss F. Suppression of ethanol-reinforced behavior by naltrexone is associated with attenuation of the ethanol-induced increase in dialysate dopamine levels in the nucleus accumbens. J Neurosci. 1998;18:10663–10671.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bouza C, Angeles M, Magro A, et al. Efficacy and safety of naltrexone and acamprosate in the treatment of alcohol dependence: a systematic review. Addict. 2004;99:811–828.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Littleton J, Zieglgänsberger W. Pharmacological mechanisms of naltrexone and acamprosate in the prevention of relapse in alcohol dependence. Am J Addict. 2003;12:s3–s11.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Witkiewitz K, Saville K, Hamreus K. Acamprosate for treatment of alcohol dependence: mechanisms, efficacy, and clinical utility. Ther Clin Risk Manag. 2012;8:45–53.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams SH. Medications for treating alcohol dependence. Am Fam Physician. 2005;72:1775–1780.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olive MF, Nannini MA, Ou CJ, et al. Effects of acute acamprosate and homotaurine on ethanol intake and ethanol-stimulated mesolimbic dopamine release. Eur J Pharmacol. 2002;437:55–61.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cano-Cebrian MJ, Zornoza-Sabina T, Guerri C, et al. Local acamprosate modulates dopamine release in the rat nucleus accumbens through NMDA receptors: an in vivo microdialysis study. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol. 2002;367:119–125.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chau P, Lidö HH, Söderpalm B, et al. Acamprosate’s ethanol intake-reducing effect is associated with its ability to increase dopamine. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 2018;175:101–107.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spanagel R, Vengeliene V, Jandeleit B, et al. Acamprosate produces its anti-relapse effects via calcium. Neuropsychopharmacol. 2014;39:783–791.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mann K, Hoffmann S, Pawlak CR. Does acamprosate really produce its anti-relapse effects via calcium? No support from the predict study in human alcoholics. Neuropsychopharmacol. 2016;41:659–660.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schuster R, Koopmann A, Grosshans M, et al. Association of plasma calcium concentrations with alcohol craving: new data on potential pathways. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2017;27:42–47.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosner S, Hackl-Herrwerth A, Leucht S, et al. Acamprosate for alcohol dependence. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2010;9:CD004332.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maisel NC, Blodgett JC, Wilbourne PL, et al. Meta-analysis of naltrexone and acamprosate for treating alcohol use disorders: when are these medications most helpful? Addict. 2013;108:275–293.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mason BJ. Acamprosate, alcoholism, and abstinence. J Clin Psychiatry. 2015;76:e224–5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilde MI, Wagstaff AJ. Acamprosate. A review of its pharmacology and clinical potential in the management of alcohol dependence after detoxification. Drugs. 1997;53:1038–1053.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anton RF, O’Malley SS, Ciraulo DA, et al. Combined pharmacotherapies and behavioral interventions for alcohol dependence - the COMBINE study: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2006;295:2003–2017.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stinson FS, Grant BF, Dawson DA, et al. Comorbidity between DSM-IV alcohol and specific drug use disorders in the United States: results from the national epidemiologic survey on alcohol and related conditions. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2005;80:105–116.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Esser MB, Guy GP, Zhang K, et al. Binge drinking and prescription opioid misuse in the U.S., 2012-2014. Am J Prev Med. 2019;57:197–208.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Witkiewitz K, Vowles KE. Alcohol and opioid use, co-use, and chronic pain in the context of the opioid epidemic: A critical review. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2018;42:478–488.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Back SE, Payne RL, Simpson AN, et al. Gender and prescription opioids: findings from the National survey on drug use and health. Addict Behav. 2010;35:1001–1007.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vowles KE, Witkiewitz K, Pielech M, et al. Alcohol and opioid use in chronic pain: A cross-sectional examination of differences in functioning based on misuse status. J Pain. 2018;19:1181–1188.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boissoneault J, Lewis B, Nixon SJ. Characterizing chronic pain and alcohol use trajectory among treatment-seeking alcoholics. Alcohol. 2019;75:47–54.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zale EL, Maisto SA, Ditre JW. Interrelations between pain and alcohol: an integrative review. Clin Psychol Rev. 2015;37:57–71.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCabe SE, Cranford JA, Morales M, et al. Simultaneous and concurrent polydrug use of alcohol and prescription drugs: prevalence, correlates, and consequences. J Stud Alcohol. 2006;67:529–537.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Larance B, Campbell G, Peacock A, et al. Pain, alcohol use disorders and risky patterns of drinking among people with chronic non-cancer pain receiving long-term opioid therapy. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2016;162:79–87.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paulus DJ, Rogers AH, Bakhshaie J, et al. Pain severity and prescription opioid misuse among individuals with chronic pain: the moderating role of alcohol use severity. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2019;204:107456.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones CM, McCance-Katz EF. Co-occurring substance use and mental disorders among adults with opioid use disorder. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2019;197:78–82.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCabe SE, Cranford JA, West BT. Trends in prescription drug abuse and dependence, co-occurrence with other substance use disorders, and treatment utilization: results from two national surveys. Addict Behav. 2008;33:1297–1305.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hser YI, Mooney LJ, Saxon AJ, et al. Chronic pain among patients with opioid use disorder: results from electronic health records data. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2017;77:26–30.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hartzler B, Donovan DM, Huang Z. Comparison of opiate-primary treatment seekers with and without alcohol use disorder. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2010;39:114–123.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Landsman-Blumberg PB, Katz N, Gajria K, et al. Burden of alcohol abuse or dependence among long-term opioid users with chronic noncancer pain. J Manag Care Spec Pharm. 2017;23:718–724.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mistry CJ, Bawor M, Desai D, et al. Genetics of opioid dependence: a review of the genetic contribution to opioid dependence. Curr Psychiatry Rev. 2014;10:156–167.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Grant BF, Goldstein RB, Saha TD, et al. Epidemiology of DSM-5 alcohol use disorder: results from the national epidemiologic survey on alcohol and related conditions III. JAMA Psychiatry. 2015;72:757–766.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Key substance use and mental health indicators in the United States: results from the 2018 national survey on drug use and health (HHS Publication No. PEP19-5068, NSDUH Series H-54). Rockville, MD: Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration; 2019.
   Google Scholar
• Pirastu R, Fais R, Messina M, et al. Impaired decision-making in opiate-dependent subjects: effect of pharmacological therapies. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2006;83:163–168.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gurriaran X, Rodriguez-Lopez J, Florez G, et al. Relationships between substance abuse/dependence and psychiatric disorders based on polygenic scores. Genes Brain Behav. 2019;18:e12504.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weiss RD. Adherence to pharmacotherapy in patients with alcohol and opioid dependence. Addict. 2004;99:1382–1392.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mayfield RD, Harris RA, Schuckit MA. Genetic factors influencing alcohol dependence. Br J Pharmacol. 2008;154:275–287.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang TY, Lee SY, Chen SL, et al. Association between DRD2, 5-HTTLPR, and ALDH2 genes and specific personality traits in alcohol- and opiate-dependent patients. Behav Brain Res. 2013;250:285–292.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Friedmann PD, Wilson D, Nunes EV, et al. Do patient characteristics moderate the effect of extended-release naltrexone (XR-NTX) for opioid use disorder? J Subst Abuse Treat. 2018;85:61–65.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watkins KE, Ober AJ, Lamp K, et al. Collaborative care for opioid and alcohol use disorders in primary care: the SUMMIT randomized clinical trial. JAMA Intern Med. 2017;177:1480–1488.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watkins KE, Setodji C, McCullough CM. Necessary clarifications concerning results of the SUMMIT trial-reply. JAMA Intern Med. 2018;178:429.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mello NK, Negus SS. Preclinical evaluation of pharmacotherapies for treatment of cocaine and opioid abuse using drug self-administration procedures. Neuropsychopharmacol. 1996;14:375–424.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Collins RJ, Weeks JR, Cooper MM, et al. Prediction of abuse liability of drugs using IV self-administration by rats. Psychopharmacol (Berl). 1983;82:6–13.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Le AD, Lo S, Harding S, et al. Coadministration of intravenous nicotine and oral alcohol in rats. Psychopharmacol (Berl). 2010;208:475–486.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olive MF, Kalivas PW. Conditioning of addiction. In: Addiction Medicine: Science and Practice (BA Johnson, ed.). New York: Springer, pp. 159–177, 2010.
   Google Scholar
• Haney M, Spealman R. Controversies in translational research: drug self-administration. Psychopharmacol (Berl). 2008;199:403–419.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Le AD, Kalant H. Intravenous self-administration of alcohol in rats-problems with translation to humans. Addict Biol. 2017;22:1665–1681.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blegen MB, da Silva E, Silva D, et al. Alcohol operant self-administration: investigating how alcohol-seeking behaviors predict drinking in mice using two operant approaches. Alcohol. 2018;67:23–36.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kufahl PR, Martin-Fardon R, Weiss F. Enhanced sensitivity to attenuation of conditioned reinstatement by the mGluR 2/3 agonist LY379268 and increased functional activity of mGluR 2/3 in rats with a history of ethanol dependence. Neuropsychopharmacol. 2011;36:2762–2773.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holgate JY, Shariff M, Mu EW, et al. A rat drinking in the dark model for studying ethanol and sucrose consumption. Front Behav Neurosci. 2017;11:29.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thiele TE, Crabbe JC, Boehm SL. “Drinking in the Dark” (DID): a simple mouse model of binge-like alcohol intake. Curr Protoc Neurosci. 2014;68: 1–12. 9.49.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tabakoff B, Hoffman PL. Animal models in alcohol research. Alcohol Res Health. 2000;24:77–84.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• de Wit H, Stewart J. Reinstatement of cocaine-reinforced responding in the rat. Psychopharmacol (Berl). 1981;75:134–143.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shaham Y, Shalev U, Lu L, et al. The reinstatement model of drug relapse: history, methodology and major findings. Psychopharmacol (Berl). 2003;168:3–20.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fitzgerald LW, Ortiz J, Hamedani AG, et al. Drugs of abuse and stress increase the expression of GluR1 and NMDAR1 glutamate receptor subunits in the rat ventral tegmental area: common adaptations among cross-sensitizing agents. J Neurosci. 1996;16:274–282.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin G, Nie Z, Siggins GR. mu-Opioid receptors modulate NMDA receptor-mediated responses in nucleus accumbens neurons. J Neurosci. 1997;17:11–22.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bie B, Zhu W, Pan ZZ. Rewarding morphine-induced synaptic function of delta-opioid receptors on central glutamate synapses. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2009;329:290–296.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Siggins GR, Martin G, Roberto M, et al. Glutamatergic transmission in opiate and alcohol dependence. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2003;1003:196–211.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Niehaus JL, Murali M, Kauer JA. Drugs of abuse and stress impair LTP at inhibitory synapses in the ventral tegmental area. Eur J Neurosci. 2010;32:108–117.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nugent FS, Penick EC, Kauer JA. Opioids block long-term potentiation of inhibitory synapses. Nature. 2007;446:1086–1090.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dacher M, Nugent FS. Morphine-induced modulation of LTD at GABAergic synapses in the ventral tegmental area. Neuropharmacol. 2011;61:1166–1171.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dacher M, Gouty S, Dash S, et al. A-kinase anchoring protein-calcineurin signaling in long-term depression of GABAergic synapses. J Neurosci. 2013;33:2650–2660.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wagner KJ, Sprenger T, Kochs EF, et al. Imaging human cerebral pain modulation by dose-dependent opioid analgesia: a positron emission tomography activation study using remifentanil. Anesthesiol. 2007;106:548–556.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oertel BG, Preibisch C, Wallenhorst T, et al. Differential opioid action on sensory and affective cerebral pain processing. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2008;83:577–588.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Becerra L, Harter K, Gonzalez RG, et al. Functional magnetic resonance imaging measures of the effects of morphine on central nervous system circuitry in opioid-naive healthy volunteers. Anesth Analg. 2006;103:208–216. table of contents.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Larcher A, Laulin JP, Celerier E, et al. Acute tolerance associated with a single opiate administration: involvement of N-methyl-D-aspartate-dependent pain facilitatory systems. Neurosci. 1998;84:583–589.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Trujillo KA, Akil H. Inhibition of morphine tolerance and dependence by the NMDA receptor antagonist MK-801. Sci. 1991;251:85–87.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mao JR. NMDA and opioid receptors: their interactions in antinociception, tolerance and neuroplasticity. Brain Res Rev. 1999;30:289–304.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chu LF, Angst MS, Clark D. Opioid-induced hyperalgesia in humans: molecular mechanisms and clinical considerations. Clin J Pain. 2008;24:479–496.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burnett EJ, Chandler LJ, Trantham-Davidson H. Glutamatergic plasticity and alcohol dependence-induced alterations in reward, affect and cognition. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2016;65:309–320.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Melendez RI, Hicks MP, Cagle SS, et al. Ethanol exposure decreases glutamate uptake in the nucleus accumbens. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2005;29:326–333.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li C, McCall NM, Lopez AJ, et al. Alcohol effects on synaptic transmission in periaqueductal gray dopamine neurons. Alcohol. 2013;47:279–287.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoffman PL, Rabe CS, Grant KA, et al. Ethanol and the NMDA receptor. Alcohol. 1990;7:229–231.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wirkner K, Poelchen W, Köles L, et al. Ethanol-induced inhibition of NMDA receptor channels. Neurochem Int. 1999;35:153–162.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yaka R, Phamluong K, Ron D. Scaffolding of Fyn kinase to the NMDA receptor determines brain region sensitivity to ethanol. J Neurosci. 2003;23:3623–3632.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lai CC, Chang MC, Lin HH. Acute tolerance to ethanol inhibition of NMDA-induced responses in rat rostral ventrolateral medulla neurons. J Biomed Sci. 2004;11:482–492.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chandler LJ, Newsom H, Sumners C, et al. Chronic ethanol exposure potentiates NMDA excitotoxicity in cerebral cortical neurons. J Neurochem. 1993;60:1578–1581.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olsen RW, Liang J. Role of GABA. Mol Brain. 2017;10:45.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gonzalez C, Moss SJ, Olsen RW. Ethanol promotes clathrin adaptor-mediated endocytosis via the intracellular domain of δ-containing GABAA receptors. J Neurosci. 2012;32:17874–17881.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McClintick JN, McBride WJ, Bell RL, et al. Gene expression changes in serotonin, GABA-A receptors, neuropeptides and ion channels in the dorsal raphe nucleus of adolescent alcohol-preferring (P) rats following binge-like alcohol drinking. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 2015;129:87–96.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alaux-Cantin S, Warnault V, Legastelois R, et al. Alcohol intoxications during adolescence increase motivation for alcohol in adult rats and induce neuroadaptations in the nucleus accumbens. Neuropharmacol. 2013;67:521–531.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ticku MK, Mhatre M, Mehta AK. Modulation of GABAergic transmission by ethanol. Adv Biochem Psychopharmacol. 1992;47:255–268.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Trantham-Davidson H, Chandler LJ. Alcohol-induced alterations in dopamine modulation of prefrontal activity. Alcohol. 2015;49:773–779.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Okamoto T, Harnett MT, Morikawa H. Hyperpolarization-activated cation current (Ih) is an ethanol target in midbrain dopamine neurons of mice. J Neurophysiol. 2006;95:619–626.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brodie MS, Appel SB. The effects of ethanol on dopaminergic neurons of the ventral tegmental area studied with intracellular recording in brain slices. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 1998;22:236–244.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lammel S, Hetzel A, Häckel O, et al. Unique properties of mesoprefrontal neurons within a dual mesocorticolimbic dopamine system. Neuron. 2008;57:760–773.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karkhanis AN, Rose JH, Huggins KN, et al. Chronic intermittent ethanol exposure reduces presynaptic dopamine neurotransmission in the mouse nucleus accumbens. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2015;150:24–30.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stennett BA, Padovan-Hernandez Y, Knackstedt LA. Sequential cocaine-alcohol self-administration produces adaptations in rat nucleus accumbens core glutamate homeostasis that are distinct from those produced by cocaine self-administration alone. Neuropsychopharmacol. 2020;45:441–450.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar