737
Views
18
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Perspective

Pharmacotherapeutic strategies for castrate-resistant prostate cancer

, , , &
Pages 1431-1448 | Received 05 Jan 2020, Accepted 06 May 2020, Published online: 29 May 2020

References

  • Rawla P. Epidemiology of prostate cancer. World J Oncol. 2019;10(2):63–89.
  • Baade PD , Youlden DR , Krnjacki LJ. International epidemiology of prostate cancer: geographical distribution and secular trends. Mol Nutr Food Res. 2009 Feb;53(2):171–184.
  • Harris WP , Mostaghel EA , Nelson PS , et al. Androgen deprivation therapy: progress in understanding mechanisms of resistance and optimizing androgen depletion. Nat Clin Pract Urol. 2009 Feb;6(2):76–85.
  • Suzman DL , Antonarakis ES . Castration-resistant prostate cancer: latest evidence and therapeutic implications. Ther Adv Med Oncol. 2014;6(4):167–179.
  • Hotte SJ , Saad F . Current management of castrate-resistant prostate cancer. Curr Oncol. 2010;17(Suppl2):S72–S79.
  • Dellis A , Papatsoris AG . Denosumab as a promising novel bone-targeted agent incastration resistant prostate cancer. Expert Opin Biol Ther. 2014 Jan;14(1):7–10.
  • Gartrell BA , Saad F . Abiraterone in the management of castration-resistant prostate cancer prior to chemotherapy. Therapeutic Advances in Urology. 2015 Aug;7(4):194–202.
  • Mateo J , Fizazi K , Gillessen S , et al. Managing nonmetastatic. Eur Urol. 2019 Feb;75(2):285–293.
  • FDA . Approves apalutamide for non-metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer. [cited 2020 Jan 05 ]; Available from: https://www.fda.gov/drugs/resources-information-approved-drugs/fda-approves-apalutamide-non-metastatic-castration-resistant-prostate-cancer.
  • FDA . Approves enzalutamide for castration-resistant prostate cancer. [cited 2020 Jan 05 ]; Available from: https://www.fda.gov/drugs/resources-information-approved-drugs/fda-approves-enzalutamide-castration-resistant-prostate-cancer.
  • FDA . Approves darolutamide for non-metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer. [cited 2019 July 31 ]; Available from: https://www.fda.gov/drugs/resources-information-approved-drugs/fda-approves-darolutamide-non-metastatic-castration-resistant-prostate-cancer.
  • Dellis A , Zagouri F , Liontos M , et al. Hellenic Genito-Urinary Cancer Group (HCUCG). Management of advanced prostate cancer: A systematic review of existing guidelines and recommendations. Cancer Treat Rev. 2019 Feb;73:54–61.
  • Dellis AE , Papatsoris AG . Perspectives on the current and emerging chemical androgen receptor antagonists for the treatment of prostate cancer. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2019 Feb;20(2):163–172.
  • Dong L , Zieren RC , Xue W , et al. Metastatic prostate cancer remains incurable, why? Asian J Urol. 2019 Jan;6(1):26–41.
  • Feldman BJ , Feldman D . The development of androgen-independent prostate cancer. Nat Rev Cancer. 2001;1(1):34–45.
  • Wolf P . Tumor-specific induction of the intrinsic apoptotic pathway-a new therapeutic option for advanced prostate cancer? Front Oncol. 2019;9:590.
  • Montgomery RB , Mostaghel EA , Vessella R , et al. Maintenance of intratumoral androgens in metastatic prostate cancer: a mechanism for castration-resistant tumor growth. Cancer Res. 2008;68(11):4447–4454.
  • Dellis A , Papatsoris AG . Phase I and II therapies targeting the androgen receptor for the treatment of castration resistant prostate cancer. Expert Opin Investig Drugs. 2016 Jun;25(6):697–707.
  • Zhang X , Hong SZ , Lin EJ , et al. Amplification and protein expression of androgen receptor gene in prostate cancer cells: fluorescence in situ hybridization analysis. Oncol Lett. 2015;9(6):2617–2622.
  • Tilley WD , Buchanan G , Hickey TE , et al. Mutations in the androgen receptor gene are associated with progression of human prostate cancer to androgen independence. Clin Cancer Res. 1996 Feb;2(2):277–285.
  • Beltran H , Yelensky R , Frampton GM , et al. Targeted next-generation sequencing of advanced prostate cancer identifies potential therapeutic targets and disease heterogeneity. Eur Urol. 2013;63(5):920–926.
  • Coutinho I , Day TK , Tilley WD , et al. Androgen receptor signaling in castration-resistant prostate cancer: a lesson in persistence. Endocr Relat Cancer. 2016 Dec;23(12):T179–T197. Epub 2016 Oct 31.
  • Liu LL , Xie N , Sun S , et al. Mechanisms of the androgen receptor splicing in prostate cancer cells. Oncogene. 2014 Jun 12;33(24):3140–3150.
  • Gregory CW , Fei X , Ponguta LA , et al. Epidermal growth factor increases coactivation of the androgen receptor in recurrent prostate cancer. J Biol Chem. 2004 Feb 20;279(8):7119–7130.
  • Coffey K , Robson CN . Regulation of the androgen receptor by post-translational modifications. J Endocrinol. 2012;215(2):221–237.
  • Szmulewitz RZ , Chung E , Al-Ahmadie H , et al. Serum/glucocorticoid-regulated kinase 1 expression in primary human prostate cancers. Prostate. 2012;72(2):157–164.
  • Arora VK , Schenkein E , Murali R , et al. Glucocorticoid receptor confers resistance to antiandrogens by bypassing androgen receptor blockade. Cell. 2013;155(6):1309–1322.
  • Statz CM , Patterson SE , Mockus SM . mTOR inhibitors in castration-resistant prostate cancer: a systematic review. Target Oncol. 2017;12(1):47–59.
  • Papatsoris AG , Karamouzis MV , Papavassiliou AG . Novel insights into the implication of the IGF-1 network in prostate cancer. Trends Mol Med. 2005 Feb;11(2):52–55.
  • Neto AS , Tobias-Machado M , Wroclawski ML , et al. Molecular oncogenesis of prostate adenocarcinoma: role of the human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER-2/neu). Tumori. 2010;96(5):645–649.
  • Smith DC , Smith MR , Sweeney C , et al. Cabozantinib in patients with advanced prostate cancer: results of a phase II randomized discontinuation trial. J Clin Oncol. 2013;31(4):412–419.
  • Ingrosso G , Detti B , Scartoni D , et al. Current therapeutic options in metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer. Semin Oncol. 2018;45(5–6):303–315.
  • Rice MA , Malhotra SV , Stoyanova T . Second-generation antiandrogens: from discovery to standard of care in castration resistant prostate cancer. Front Oncol. 2019;9:801.
  • Nuhn P , De Bono JS , Fizazi K , et al., Update on systemic prostate cancer therapies: management of metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer in the era of precision oncology. Eur Urol. 2019;75(1):88–99.
  • Tannock IF , de Wit R , Berry WR , et al., Docetaxel plus prednisone or mitoxantrone plus prednisone for advanced prostate cancer. N Engl J Med. 2004;351(15):1502–1512.
  • Petrylak DP , Tangen CM , Hussain MH , et al. Docetaxel and estramustine compared with mitoxantrone and prednisone for advanced refractory prostate cancer. N Engl J Med. 2004;351(15):1513–1520.
  • Italiano A , Ortholan C , Oudard S , et al. Docetaxel-based chemotherapy in elderly patients (age 75 and older) with castration-resistant prostate cancer. Eur Urol. 2009;55(6):1368–1375.
  • Takaha N , Okihara K , Kamoi K , et al. Feasibility of tri-weekly docetaxel-based chemotherapy for elderly patients (age 75 and older) with castration-resistant prostate cancer. Urol Int. 2011;87(3):263–269.
  • Tralongo P , Bordonaro S , Di Mari A , et al. Chemotherapy in frail elderly patients with hormone-refractory prostate cancer: a “real world” experience. Prostate Int. 2016 Mar;4(1):15–19.
  • Hervonen P , Joensuu H , Joensuu T , et al. Biweekly docetaxel is better tolerated than conventional three-weekly dosing for advanced hormone-refractory prostate cancer. Anticancer Res. 2012 Mar;32(3):953–956.
  • Nelius T , Filleur S . PSA surge/flare-up in patients with castration-refractory prostate cancer during the initial phase of chemotherapy. Prostate. 2009;69(16):1802–1807.
  • Cortes JE , Pazdur R . Docetaxel. J Clin Oncol. 1995;13(10):2643–2655.
  • Mottet N , Cornford P , van den Bergh RCN , et al. EAU-EANM-ESTRO-ESUR-SIOG guidelines on prostate cancer. Presented at: The EAU Annual Congress Amsterdam: EAU Guidelines office, Amhem, The Netherlands; 2020:978-94-92671-07-3.
  • O’Donnell A , Judson I , Dowsett M . Hormonal impact of the 17alpha-hydroxylase/C(17,20)-lyase inhibitor abiraterone acetate (CB7630) in patients with prostate cancer. Br J Cancer. 2004;90(12):2317–2325.
  • Zobniw CM , Causebrook A , Fong MK . Clinical use of abiraterone in the treatment of metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer. Res Rep Urol. 2014;6:97–105.
  • de Bono JS , Logothetis CJ , Molina A , et al. Abiraterone and increased survival in metastatic prostate cancer. N Engl J Med. 2011;364(21):1995–2005.
  • Ryan CJ , Smith MR , de Bono JS , et al. Abiraterone in metastatic prostate cancer without previous chemotherapy. N Engl J Med. 2013 10; 368(2): 138–148.
  • Ryan CJ , Smith MR , Fizazi K , et al. Abiraterone acetate plus prednisone versus placebo plus prednisone in chemotherapy-naive men with metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer (COU-AA-302): final overall survival analysis of a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled phase 3 study. Lancet Oncol. 2015;16(2):152–160.
  • Zhou ZR , Liu SX , Zhang TS , et al. Abiraterone for treatment of metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev. 2014;15(3):1313–1320.
  • Boegemann M , Khaksar S , Bera G , et al. Abiraterone acetate plus prednisone for the Management of Metastatic Castration-Resistant Prostate Cancer (mCRPC) without prior use of chemotherapy: report from a large, international, real-world retrospective cohort study. BMC Cancer. 2019;19(1):60.
  • Facchini G , Cavaliere C , D’Aniello C , et al. Abiraterone acetate treatment in patients with castration-resistant prostate cancer with visceral metastases: a real-world experience. Anticancer Drugs. 2019;30(2):179–185.
  • Dellis A , Papatsoris AG . The economics of abiraterone acetate for castration-resistant prostate cancer. Expert Rev Pharmacoecon Outcomes Res. 2014 Apr;14(2):175–179.
  • Fenioux C , Louvet C , Charton E , et al. Switch from abiraterone plus prednisone to abiraterone plus dexamethasone at asymptomatic PSA progression in patients with metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer. BJU Int. 2019;123(2):300–306.
  • McKay RR , Werner L , Jacobus SJ , et al. A phase 2 trial of abiraterone acetate without glucocorticoids for men with metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer. Cancer. 2019;125(4):524–532.
  • Gill D , Gaston D , Bailey E , et al. Efficacy of eplerenone in the management of mineralocorticoid excess in men with metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer treated with abiraterone without prednisone. Clin Genitourin Cancer. 2017;15(4):e599–e602.
  • Goldberg T , Berrios-Colon E . Abiraterone (zytiga), a novel agent for the management of castration-resistant prostate cancer. P T. 2013;38(1):23–26.
  • Szmulewitz RZ , Peer CJ , Ibraheem A , et al. Prospective international randomized phase II study of lowdose abiraterone with food versus standard dose abiraterone in castration - resistant prostate cancer. J Clin Oncol. 2018;36(14):1389–1395.
  • Kolesar JM , Liu GX . Low-fat abiraterone food effect is of little consequence. J Clin Oncol. 2018 May 10;36(14):1385–1386.
  • Maeda H , Saito A . Enzalutamide-a novel androgen receptor inhibitor that provides treatment options for patients with castration-resistant prostate cancer. Gan To Kagaku Ryoho. 2014;41(7):805–810.
  • Scher HI , Fizazi K , Saad F , et al. Increased survival with enzalutamide in prostate cancer after chemotherapy. N Engl J Med. 2012;367(13):1187–1197.
  • Beer TM , Armstrong AJ , Rathkopf DE , et al. Enzalutamide in metastatic prostate cancer before chemotherapy. N Engl J Med. 2014;371(5):424–433.
  • Evans CP , Higano CS , Keane T , et al. The PREVAIL study: primary outcomes by site and extent of baseline disease for enzalutamide-treated men with chemotherapy-naïve metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer. Eur Urol. 2016;70(4):675–683.
  • Beer TM , Armstrong AJ , Rathkopf D , et al. Enzalutamide in men with chemotherapy-naïve metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer: extended analysis of the phase 3 PREVAIL study. Eur Urol. 2017;71(2):151–154.
  • Graff JN , Baciarello G , Armstrong AJ , et al. Efficacy and safety of enzalutamide in patients 75 years or older with chemotherapy-naive metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer: results from PREVAIL. Ann Oncol. 2016;27(2):286–294.
  • Shore ND , Chowdhury S , Villers A , et al. Efficacy and safety of enzalutamide versus bicalutamide for patients with metastatic prostate cancer (TERRAIN): a randomised, double-blind, phase 2 study. Lancet Oncol. 2016;17(2):153–163.
  • Siemens DR , Klotz L , Heidenreich A , et al. Efficacy and safety of enzalutamide vs bicalutamide in younger and older patients with metastatic castration resistant prostate cancer in the TERRAIN trial. J Urol. 2018;199(1):147–154.
  • Brasso K , Thomsen FB , Schrader AJ , et al. Enzalutamide antitumour activity against metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer previously treated with docetaxel and abiraterone: a multicentre analysis. Eur Urol. 2015;68(2):317–324.
  • Miyazawa Y , Sekine Y , Shimizu N , et al. An exploratory retrospective multicenter study of prognostic factors in mCRPC patients undergoing enzalutamide treatment: focus on early PSA decline and kinetics at time of progression. Prostate. 2019;79(12):1462–1470.
  • Greasley R , Khabazhaitajer M , Rosario DJ . A profile of enzalutamide for the treatment of advanced castration resistant prostate cancer. Cancer Manag Res. 2015;7:153–164.
  • Moreira RB , Debiasi M , Francini E , et al. Differential side effects profile in patients with mCRPC treated with abiraterone or enzalutamide: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Oncotarget. 2017;8(48):84572–84578.
  • Ramadan WH , Kabbara WK , Al Basiouni Al Masri HS . Enzalutamide for patients with metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer. Onco Targets Ther. 2015;8:871–876.
  • Bianchini D , Lorente D , Rodriguez-Vida A , et al. Antitumour activity of enzalutamide (MDV3100) in patients with metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) pre-treated with docetaxel and abiraterone. Eur J Cancer. 2014;50(1):78–84.
  • Handy CE , Antonarakis ES . Sipuleucel-T for the treatment of prostate cancer: novel insights and future directions. Future Oncol. 2018;14(10):907–917.
  • Anassi E , Ndefo UA . Sipuleucel-T (provenge) injection: the first immunotherapy agent (vaccine) for hormone-refractory prostate cancer. P T. 2011;36(4):197–202.
  • Small EJ , Schellhammer PF , Higano CS , et al. Placebo-controlled phase III trial of immunologic therapy with sipuleucel-T (APC8015) in patients with metastatic, asymptomatic hormone refractory prostate cancer. J Clin Oncol. 2006 Jul 1;24(19):3089–3094.
  • Higano CS , Schellhammer PF , Small EJ , et al. Integrated data from 2 randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 3 trials of active cellular immunotherapy with sipuleucel-T in advanced prostate cancer. Cancer. 2009;115(16):3670–3679.
  • Kantoff PW , Higano CS , Shore ND , et al. Sipuleucel-T immunotherapy for castration-resistant prostate cancer. N Engl J Med. 2010;363:411–422.
  • Huber ML , Haynes L , Parker C , et al. Interdisciplinary critique of sipuleucel-T as immunotherapy in castration-resistant prostate cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2012;104(4):273–279.
  • Nabhan C , Sartor AO , Cooperberg MR , et al. Sipuleucel-T in metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer (mCRPC) patients ≥80 years-old: data from PROCEED. Clin Adv Hematol Oncol. 2014;12(4 Suppl 11):11.
  • McNeel DG , Gardner TA , Higano CS , et al. A transient increase in eosinophils is associated with prolonged survival in men with metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer who receive sipuleucel-T. Cancer Immunol Res. 2014;2(10):988–999.
  • Twardowski P , Wong JYC , Pal SK , et al. Randomized phase II trial of sipuleucel-T immunotherapy preceded by sensitizing radiation therapy and sipuleucel-T alone in patients with metastatic castrate resistant prostate cancer. Cancer Treat Res Commun. 2019;19:100116.
  • Caram MEV , Ross R , Lin P , et al. Factors associated with use of sipuleucel-T to treat patients with advanced prostate cancer. JAMA Network Open. 2019;2(4):e192589.
  • Hammerstrom AE , Cauley DH , Atkinson BJ , et al. Cancer immunotherapy: sipuleucel-T and beyond. Pharmacotherapy. 2011;31(8):813–828.
  • Paller CJ , Antonarakis ES . Cabazitaxel: a novel second-line treatment for metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer. Drug Des Devel Ther. 2011;5:117–124.
  • de Bono JS , Oudard S , Ozguroglu M , et al. Prednisone plus cabazitaxel or mitoxantrone for metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer progressing after docetaxel treatment: a randomised open-label trial. Lancet. 2010;376(9747):1147–1154.
  • Bahl A , Oudard S , Tombal B , et al. Impact of cabazitaxel on 2-year survival and palliation of tumour-related pain in men with metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer treated in the TROPIC trial. Ann Oncol. 2013;24(9):2402–2408.
  • Eisenberger M , Hardy-Bessard AC , Kim CS , et al. Phase III study comparing a reduced dose of cabazitaxel (20 mg/m2) and the currently approved dose (25 mg/m2) in postdocetaxel patients with metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer-PROSELICA. J Clin Oncol. 2017;35(28):3198–3206.
  • Wissing MD , van Oort IM , Gerritsen WR , et al. Cabazitaxel in patients with metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer: results of a compassionate use program in the Netherlands. Clin Genitourin Cancer. 2013;11(3):238–250.e1.
  • Rouyer M , Oudard S , Joly F , et al. Overall and progression-free survival with cabazitaxel in metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer in routine clinical practice: the FUJI cohort. Br J Cancer. 2019;121(12):1001–1008.
  • Tsao CK , Cutting E , Martin J , et al. The role of cabazitaxel in the treatment of metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer. Ther Adv Urol. 2014;6(3):97–104.
  • Meisel A , von Felten S , Vogt DR , et al. Severe neutropenia during cabazitaxel treatment is associated with survival benefit in men with metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer (mCRPC): A post-hoc analysis of the TROPIC phase III trial. Eur J Cancer. 2016;56:93–100.
  • Al Nakouzi N , Le Moulec S , Albigès L , et al. Cabazitaxel remains active in patients progressing after docetaxel followed by novel androgen receptor pathway targeted therapies. Eur Urol. 2015;68(2):228–235.
  • Wissing MD , Coenen JL , van den Berg P , et al. CAST: A retrospective analysis of cabazitaxel and abiraterone acetate sequential treatment in patients with metastatic castrate-resistant prostate cancer previously treated with docetaxel. Int J Cancer. 2015 Mar 15;136(6):E760–72.
  • Caffo O , De Giorgi U , Fratino L , et al. Clinical outcomes of castration-resistant prostate cancer treatments administered as third or fourth line following failure of docetaxel and other second-line treatment: results of an italian multicentre study. Eur Urol. 2015;68(1):147–153.
  • Oudard S , Fizazi K , Sengeløv L , et al. Cabazitaxel versus docetaxel as first-line therapy for patients with metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer: a randomized phase III trial-FIRSTANA. J Clin Oncol. 2017;35(28):3189–3197.
  • El-Amm J , Aragon-Ching JB . Radium-223 for the treatment of castration-resistant prostate cancer. Onco Targets Ther. 2015;8:1103–1109.
  • Parker C , Nilsson S , Heinrich D , et al. Alpha emitter radium-223 and survival in metastatic prostate cancer. N Engl J Med. 2013;369(3):213–223.
  • Vogelzang NJ , Coleman RE , Michalski JM , et al. Hematologic safety of radium-223 dichloride: baseline prognostic factors associated with myelosuppression in the ALSYMPCA trial. Clin Genitourin Cancer. 2017;15(1):42–52.e8.
  • Hoskin P , Sartor O , O’Sullivan JM , et al. Efficacy and safety of radium-223 dichloride in patients with castration-resistant prostate cancer and symptomatic bone metastases, with or without previous docetaxel use: a prespecified subgroup analysis from the randomised, double-blind, phase 3 ALSYMPCA trial. Lancet Oncol. 2014;15(12):1397–1406.
  • Parker C , Heidenreich A , Nilsson S , et al. Current approaches to incorporation of radium-223 in clinical practice. Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis. 2018;21(1):37–47.
  • Shore ND . Radium-223 dichloride for metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer: the urologist’s perspective. Urology. 2015;85(4):717–724.
  • Sartor O , Vogelzang NJ , Sweeney C , et al. Radium-223 safety, efficacy, and concurrent use with abiraterone or enzalutamide: first U.S. experience from an expanded access program. Oncologist. 2018 Feb;23(2):193–202.
  • Smith M , Parker C , Saad F , et al. Addition of radium-223 to abiraterone acetate and prednisone or prednisolone in patients with castration-resistant prostate cancer and bone metastases (ERA 223): a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 3 trial. Lancet Oncol. 2019 Mar;20(3):408–419.
  • Lorente D , Fizazi K , Sweeney C , et al. Optimal treatment sequence for metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer. Eur Urol Focus. 2016;2(5):488–498.
  • Lozano R , Castro E , Piulats JM , et al. Impact of treatment sequence in metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer (mCRPC) on outcome in a prospective cohort study. J clin oncol. 2019;37(7_suppl):264.
  • Scher HI , Morris MJ , Stadler WM , et al. Trial design and objectives for castration-resistant prostate cancer: updated recommendations from the prostate cancer clinical trials working group 3. J Clin Oncol. 2016;34(12):1402–1418.
  • Francini E , Yip S , Ahmed S , et al. Clinical outcomes of first-line abiraterone acetate or enzalutamide for metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer after androgen deprivation therapy + docetaxel or ADT alone for metastatic hormone-sensitive prostate cancer. Clin Genitourin Cancer. 2018;16(2):130–134.
  • Zhang W , Wu TY , Chen Q , et al. Indirect comparison between abiraterone acetate and enzalutamide for the treatment of metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer: a systematic review. Asian J Androl. 2017;19(2):196–202.
  • de Wit R , de Bono J , Sternberg CN , et al. Cabazitaxel versus abiraterone or enzalutamide in metastatic prostate cancer. N Engl J Med. 2019 Dec 26;381(26):2506–2518.
  • Noonan KL , North S , Bitting RL , et al. Clinical activity of abiraterone acetate in patients with metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer progressing after enzalutamide. Ann Oncol. 2013;24(7):1802–1807.
  • Attard G , Borre M , Gurney H , et al. Abiraterone alone or in combination with enzalutamide in metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer with rising prostate-specific antigen during enzalutamide treatment. J Clin Oncol. 2018;36(25):2639–2646.
  • Khalaf DJ , Annala M , Taavitsainen S , et al., Optimal sequencing of enzalutamide and abiraterone acetate plus prednisone in metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer: a multicentre, randomised, open-label, phase 2, crossover trial. Lancet Oncol. 2019;20(12):1730–1739.
  • Mori K , Kimura T , Onuma H , et al. Lactate dehydrogenase predicts combined progression-free survival after sequential therapy with abiraterone and enzalutamide for patients with castration-resistant prostate cancer. Prostate. 2017;77(10):1144–1150.
  • Miyake H , Hara T , Tamura K , et al. Comparative assessment of efficacies between 2 alternative therapeutic sequences with novel androgen receptor-axis-targeted agents in patients with chemotherapy-Naïve metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer. Clin Genitourin Cancer. 2017 Aug;15(4):e591–e597.
  • Maughan BL , Luber B , Nadal R , et al. Comparing sequencing of abiraterone and enzalutamide in men with metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer: a retrospective study. Prostate. 2017;77(1):33–40.
  • Suzman DL , Luber B , Schweizer MT , et al. Clinical activity of enzalutamide versus docetaxel in men with castration-resistant prostate cancer progressing after abiraterone. Prostate. 2014;74(13):1278–1285.
  • Oh WK , Miao R , Vekeman F , et al. Real-world characteristics and outcomes of patients with metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer receiving chemotherapy versus androgen receptor-targeted therapy after failure of first-line androgen receptor-targeted therapy in the community setting. Clin Genitourin Cancer. 2017;S1558-7673(17)30170–2.
  • Oh WK , Cheng WY , Miao R , et al. Real-world outcomes in patients with metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer receiving second-line chemotherapy versus an alternative androgen receptor-targeted agent (ARTA) following early progression on a first-line ARTA in a US community oncology setting. Urol Oncol. 2018;36(11):500.e1–500.e9.
  • Miyake H , Sugiyama T , Aki R , et al. Comparison of Alternative Androgen Receptor-axis-targeted Agent (ARATA) and docetaxel as second-line therapy for patients with metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer with progression after initial arata in real-world clinical practice in Japan. Clin Genitourin Cancer. 2018;16(3):219–225.
  • Miyake H , Hara T , Ozono S , et al. Impact of prior use of an Androgen Receptor-Axis-Targeted (ARAT) agent with or without subsequent taxane therapy on the efficacy of another ARAT agent in patients with metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer. Clin Genitourin Cancer. 2017;15(2):e217–e222.
  • Castro E , Romero-Laorden N , Del Pozo A , et al. PROREPAIR-B: a prospective cohort study of the impact of germline dna repair mutations on the outcomes of patients with metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer. J Clin Oncol. 2019;37(6):490–503.
  • Antonarakis ES , Lu C , Luber B , et al. Germline DNA-repair gene mutations and outcomes in men with metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer receiving first-line abiraterone and enzalutamide. Eur Urol. 2018;74(2):218–225.
  • Mateo J , Carreira S , Sandhu S , et al. DNA-repair defects and olaparib in metastatic prostate cancer. N Engl J Med. 2015;373(18):1697–1708.
  • Hussain M , Mateo J , Fizazi K , et al. PROfound: phase III study of olaparib versus enzalutamide or abiraterone for metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer (mCRPC) with homologous recombination repair (HRR) gene alterations. Ann Oncol. 2019;30(Suppl 5):881–882.
  • Abida W , Campbell D , Patnaik A , et al. Preliminary results from the TRITON2 study of rucaparib in patients (pts) with DNA damage repair (DDR)-deficient metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer (mCRPC): updated analyses. Ann Oncol. 2019;30(Suppl 5):327–328.
  • Smith MR , Sandhu SK , Kelly WK , et al. Phase II study of niraparib in patients with metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer (mCRPC) and biallelic DNA-repair gene defects (DRD): preliminary results of GALAHAD. JCO. 2019;37(suppl 7):202.
  • Kwon ED , Drake CG , Scher HI , et al. Ipilimumab versus placebo after radiotherapy in patients with metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer that had progressed after docetaxel chemotherapy (CA184-043): a multicentre, randomised, double-blind, phase 3 trial. Lancet Oncol. 2014;15(7):700–712.
  • Taghizadeh H , Marhold M , Tomasich E , et al. Immune checkpoint inhibitors in mCRPC - rationales, challenges and perspectives. Oncoimmunology. 2019;8(11):e1644109.
  • Graff J , Alumkal JJ , Thompson RF , et al. Pembrolizumab (Pembro) plus enzalutamide (Enz) in metastatic castration resistant prostate cancer (mCRPC): extended follow up. J Clin Oncol. 2018;36(15_suppl):5047.
  • Picardo SL , Hansen AR . The PD-1/PD-L1 pathway in advanced prostate cancer-have we milked this cow? Ann Transl Med. 2019;7(14):346.
  • Gulley JL , Borre M , Vogelzang NJ , et al. Phase III trial of PROSTVAC in asymptomatic or minimally symptomatic metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer. J Clin Oncol. 2019;37(13):1051–1061.
  • Isaacsson Velho P , Antonarakis ES . PD-1/PD-L1 pathway inhibitors in advanced prostate cancer. Expert Rev Clin Pharmacol. 2018;11(5):475–486.
  • Dellis AE , Papatsoris AG . Apalutamide: the established and emerging roles in the treatment of advanced prostate cancer. Expert Opin Investig Drugs. 2018 Jun;27(6):553–559.
  • Smith MR , Saad F , Chowdhury S , et al. Apalutamide treatment and metastasis-free survival in prostate cancer. N Engl J Med. 2018;378(15):1408–1418.
  • Hussain M , Fizazi K , Saad F , et al. Enzalutamide in men with nonmetastatic, castration-resistant prostate cancer. N Engl J Med. 2018;378(26):2465–2474.
  • Bastos DA , Antonarakis ES . Darolutamide for castration-resistant prostate cancer. Onco Targets Ther. 2019;12:8769–8777.
  • Fizazi K , Shore N , Tammela TL , et al. Darolutamide in nonmetastatic, castration-resistant prostate cancer. N Engl J Med. 2019;380(13):1235–1246.
  • Nieto-Gómez P , Ubago-Pérez R , Cabeza-Barrera J . Efficacy of enzalutamide and apalutamide in the treatment of non-metastasic castration-resistant prostate cancer: indirect comparison. Actas Urol Esp. 2019;43(7):355–363.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.