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Original Articles

“So terrible a liberation”—The UN occupation of North Korea

Pages 3-19 | Published online: 05 Jul 2019

References

  • Hon-yong, Pak , 1977. The U.S. Imperialists Started the Korean War . Pyongyang: Foreign Languages Publishing House; 1977. pp. 235–235, to UN secretary general, 16 December 1950, Security Council, Official Records, Sixth Year, Supplement for Jan., Feb., and Mar. 1951 (New York, 1951), pp. 128-29. Approximate totals by province are listed in.
  • The U.S. Imperialists Started the Korean War . pp. 229–230.
  • Gil, Kim Han , 1979. Modern History of Korea . Pyongyang: Foreign Languages Publishing House; 1979. pp. 305–306, interview with author, Sinchon Atrocity Museum, 16 Sept. 1988. According to the vice director, Im Kyon-sun, the latest grave to be found was uncovered on 25 August 1988 just behind the old police station in Sinchon. It contained 239 bodies, including 52 women and 42 children. The women and children were at the bottom and the men on top. The bodies at the bottom had not rotted because of the clay soil and the oils from the corpses above them. Some were identified by personal seals or rings. The Sinchon Museum is on the itinerary of most foreign visitors to the DPRK. It was even shown to the captured crew of the USS Pueblo in 1968. See Lloyd M. Bucher with Mark Rascovitch, Pueblo and Bucher(London: Michael Joseph, 1971), pp. 350-51.
  • 1952. New Times . China. 1952, no. 16.
  • Halliday, Jon , and Cumings, Bruce , 1988. Korea: The Unknown War . London: Viking; New York: Pantheon; 1988, Bruce Cumings, The Origins of the Korean War, Vol. 1: Liberation and the Emergence of Separate Regimes (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1981); and Vol. 2: The Roaring of the Cataract (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990).
  • Origins . Vol. 1. pp. 68–100.
  • Halliday, , and Cumings, , Korea . pp. 15–29, Cumings, Origins, vol. 1, pp. 428-44; and Mark Sher, “U.S. Policy in Korea 1945-1948,” Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars, vol. 5, no. 4 (Dec. 1973), pp. 17-27. A U.S. Army survey of North Korean POWs in 1952 found that “most of the population seems to have been grateful for land reform, increased industrialization, and the facade of popular participation in government.” See Samuel M. Meyers and Albert D. Biderman, eds., Mass Behavior in Battle and Captivity (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968), p. 226..
  • Henderson, Gregory , 1969. Korea: The Politics of the Vortex . Cambridge, MA:: Harvard University Press; 1969. pp. 140–143.
  • Merrill, John , 1980. "The Cheju-do Rebellion". In: Journal of Korean Studies . Vol. 2. 1980. pp. 194–195.
  • Henderson, , Korea . pp. 140–140.
  • Matray, James I. , 1985. The Reluctant Crusade: American Foreign Policy in Korea, 1941–1950 . Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press; 1985. pp. 169–169, According to one source, 1,300 were killed in Yosu and 1,135 in Sunchon during the suppression of the rebellion. In Yosu alone another 20,000 were made homeless. See Kwang Sung Song, The Impact of U.S. Military Occupation (1945–1949) on Korean Liberation, Democratization, and Unification (Ph.D. diss., University of California, Los Angeles, 1989), pp. 155-60.
  • Origins . Vol. 2. pp. 697–697.
  • 1950. "real organs of power". In: American Armed Intervention in Korea . London: Soviet News; 1950. pp. 13–16.
  • Halliday, , "Anti-Communism and the Korean War". In: CIA Korean Summaries . pp. 142–43, Harry S. Truman Library, Independence, MO; and the Times (London), 15 July 1950. Even anticommunist accounts accept that the land reform was popular at least during the early stages of the occupation, although they differ on the amount of land actually redistributed. See John W. Riley and Wilbur Schramm, The Reds Take a City (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1951), pp. 166- 67; Kim Chum-Kon, The Korean War (Seoul: Kwangmyong, 1973), pp. 376-85.
  • 1950. Times . London. 1950.
  • MacDonald, Callum A. , 1986. Korea: The War Before Vietnam . London: Macmillan; 1986. pp. 42–42.
  • Henderson, , Korea . pp. 167–167.
  • Donovan, Robert J. , 1982. Tumultuous Years: The Presidency of Harry S. Truman, 1949–1953 . New York: Norton; 1982. pp. 276–276.
  • State Department Memorandum U.S. Department of State, 1950. Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950 . Vol. 7. 1950. pp. 660–670.
  • Appleman, , South . pp. 112–112.
  • Stairs, Denis , 1974. The Diplomacy of Constraint: Canada, the Korean War and the United States . Toronto: University of Toronto Press; 1974. pp. 69–69.
  • Halliday, Jon , 1974. "The United Nations in Korea". In: Baldwin, Frank , ed. Without Parallel: The American-Korean Relationship Since 1945 . New York: Pantheon; 1974. pp. 130–133.
  • United States Courses of Action with Respect to Korea National Security Council (NSC), 1950. Foreign Relations . 1950. pp. 712–721.
  • U.S. Army: The Handling of Prisoners of War during the Korean War . Library of Congress, Manuscript Division, Microfilm 51464; pp. 5–5.
  • MacDonald , Korea . pp. 49–49.
  • 1950. "Draft Paper Prepared in the Department of the Army". In: Foreign Relations . Department of State; 1950. pp. 854–858.
  • Secretary of State to the Embassy in Korea, 1950. Foreign Relations . 1950. pp. 1007–1011.
  • Stairs, , Diplomacy . The United Nations in Korea; pp. 121–122, and Halliday.
  • "Report of the United Nations Commission for the Unification and Rehabilitation of Korea". In: General Assembly Official Records . pp. 13–15, Sixth Session, Supplement Number 12 (A/1881).
  • Alexander, Bevin , 1989. Korea: The Lost War . London: Arrow; 1989. pp. 226–226.
  • Henderson, , Korea . pp. 163–163.
  • McCormack, Gavan , 1983. Cold War, Hot War . Marrickville, NSW, Australia: Hale and Iremonger; 1983. pp. 128–129, Gregory Henderson found 50,000 a “bloated” figure and argued that “many, perhaps most” prisoners were released by the North Koreans, letter of 21 July 1987 to author. While this may have been true in Seoul, which fell quickly, it does not seem to have been the case in other cities. See Halliday and Cumings, Korea, pp. 90-92. The claim by David Rees, Korea: The Limited War (London: Macmillan, 1964), pp. 92-93, that “the behavior of the North Korean regime towards its opponents was infinitely worse than anything perpetrated by the ROK Government” and that the executions that did occur “ceased after protests in the U.S.” cannot be sustained. A similar argument is put forward by Hastings, Korean War, pp. 104-5. In fact, in August 1950 the British Foreign Office noted that the North Koreans seemed more disciplined than the South Koreans and committed fewer atrocities. See Bruce Cumings, “What South Korea Did that the FO Documented,” Guardian (London), 9 Aug. 1983.
  • 1950. Times . London. 1950.
  • Cameron, James , 1986. Point of Departure . London: Grafton; 1986. pp. 133–134, Philip Cosbie, Three Winters Cold (Dublin: Browne and Nolan, 1955), pp. 28-29.
  • Winnington, Alan , 1956. I Saw The Truth In Korea . London: Daily Worker; 1956. pp. 6–6, Winnington's figures presumably include suspects as well as those in prison when the war began. Although his most dramatic claim, that 7,000 were murdered near Taejon in July 1950, was dismissed in the West, there is evidence that a massacre did occur. See Mac Donald, Korea, pp. 41-42; and Halliday and Cumings, Korea, pp. 90-92.
  • 1950. Times . London. 1950, According to later U.S. figures, the probable total of murders of both civilians and POWs by both the Chinese and the North Koreans to June 1953 was 29,915. See Extract of Interim Historical Report, War Crimes Division, Judge Advocate Section, Korean Communications Zone, AP234, Cumulative to 30 June 1953. It is unlikely that there were significant numbers of additional deaths in the remaining weeks of the war. I am grateful to Jon Halliday for drawing my attention to this document, which is in his possession.
  • Halliday, , and Cumings, , Korea . pp. 86–86, Philip Deane, Captive in Korea (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1953), pp. 72-73; and Serge Brom-berger et al., Retour de Corée (Paris: Juillard, 1951), pp. 136-37. The communists talked about taking their victims “to the mountains,” the equivalent of taking them “for a ride,” Cosbie, Three Winters Cold, p. 34.
  • McCormack, , Cold War . pp. 138–140, Halliday and Cumings, Korea, pp. 85-87; Riley and Schramm,Reds, pp. 65-67; interview with author, The Victorious Fatherland Liberation War Museum, Pyongyang, 12 Sept. 1987; interview with author, Pyongyang, 10 Sept. 1988.
  • Halliday, , and Cumings, , Korea . pp. 86–87, Although land reform had been under discussion since February 1949, an act was not finally passed by the ROK until March 1950 and was not implemented before the North Korean attack. A conservative measure, providing generous compensation for landlords, the reform left the structure of economic power in the countryside intact. See Kang Jeong-Koo, Rethinking South Korean Land Reform: Focusing on U.S. Occupation as a Struggle Against History (Ph.D. diss., University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1987), pp. 338-83. According to a U.S. officer who had earlier served with the U.S. military government in Korea, it would be difficult to reverse the communist land reform since under the old system 3 percent of the population owned 60 percent of the land, Bromberger et al., Retour, pp. 83-84. The Far East Command (FEC) Intelligence later concluded that the popularity of the communist reform had been undermined by high taxes based on inflated crop estimates and requisitioning to meet the demands of the war. See FEC Intelligence, no. 2957, 14 Oct. 1950, RG 6, Box 56, MacArthur Library, Norfolk, Virginia.
  • Cosbie, , Three Winters Cold . pp. 55–57.
  • Riley, , and Schramm, , Reds . pp. 65–67.
  • Appleman, , South . pp. 587–588, MacDonald, Korea, p. 60; Bromberger et al., Retour, pp. 136-37. Appleman's official account stresses North Korean atrocities without mentioning the conduct of the ROK. A similar line is taken in the British official history by Sir Anthony Farrar-Hockley, The British Part in the Korean War. Vol. 1: A Distant Obligation (London: HMSO, 1990). There is evidence that the ROK blamed some of its own massacres on the communists. See Donald Knox, The Korean War: An Oral History. Pusan to Chosin (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1985), p. 295.
  • 1950. Times . London. 1950, In October 1950 the ROK accused the DPRK of genocide, claiming that the killings were part of a Soviet plan to subjugate Korea by wiping out the professional classes and interrupting “the biological continuity of our nation.” New York Times, 10 Oct. 1950.
  • 1950. New York Times . Washington, D.C.: National Archives; 1950.
  • 1950. New York Times . 1950.
  • 1950. New York Times . 1950.
  • Baillie, Hugh , 1960. High Tension . London: Harper; 1960. pp. 267–268.
  • Cameron, , Point . pp. 141–141, See also Bromberger et al., Retour, p. 98; Lynn Montross and Nicholas A. Canzona, U.S. Marine Operations in Korea, 1950–1953, Vol. 2: The Inchon-Seoul Operation (Washington, D.C.: Historical Branch, U.S. Marine Corps, 1955), p. 143: “No fault could have been found with the thoroughness of these Korean allies who were perhaps inclined to be too zealous when they suspected subversion.”.
  • interview, Bert Hardy , Korea: The Unknown War . London: Thames TV (, program 3. Shown in the United States on the Public Broadcasting System, Nov. 1990.
  • Knox, , Korean War . pp. 295–295.
  • MacDonald, , Korea . pp. 60–61.
  • Bromberger, , Retour . pp. 138–139, A secret North Korean investigation after the communist reoccupation of Seoul in December 1950 stated that nearly 29,000 had been killed, including the families of people's committee leaders. Many others were denied identity cards and used as forced labor. Cited in Cumings, Origins, vol. 2, p. 702.
  • Riley, , and Schramm, , Reds . pp. 199–199.
  • Halliday, Jon , Anti-Communism and the Korean War . London: Public Record Office, Kew; pp. 147–147, quoting F0371/84055.
  • Halliday, , and Cumings, , Korea . pp. 112–112, See also Attlee Papers, 1950, Foreign Office Notes for Debate, Korea, Bodleian Library, Oxford.
  • 1950. New York Times . 1950.
  • 1950. Memorandum of Conference . Department of State Decimal File, National Archives; 1950, 795A.0221/10–2150.
  • Secretary of State to the Embassy in Korea, 1950. Foreign Relations . Department of State; 1950. pp. 939–939.
  • 1950. Times . London. 1950, The CIA attributed the move to pressure from landlords anxious to confirm their dominant position. See Cumings, Origins, vol. 2, p. 717. The CIC estimated that 70 percent of the peasants were “ardent supporters” of the communist regime because of the land reform, despite taxes in kind of up to 25 percent of the crop. Quoted in Cumings, Origins, vol. 2, p. 718. Even U.S. apologists for Rhee had qualms about the abrogation of Northern land reform and the imposition of the Southern system. See Robert T. Oliver, The Truth About Korea (London: Putnam, 1951), pp. 161-62: “The process would actually give the farmers title to their lands... .But, will they understand and accept the process, involving as its does the restoration (however fleetingly) of their old landlords.
  • 1950. "The Week in Review". In: New York Times . 1950.
  • Henderson, , Korea . pp. 336–350, Kim Se Jin, The Politics of Military Revolution in Korea (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1971), p. 55; Cumings, Origins, vol. 2, p. 716.
  • Portway, Col. Donald , 1953. Korea: Land of the Morning Calm . London: Harrap; 1953. pp. 47–49.
  • Knightley, Phillip , 1975. The First Casualty . New York and London: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich; 1975. pp. 344–345.
  • 1950. New York Times . 1950, The role of KMAG officers in the North remains unclear and the official history is silent on the atrocity issue. See Robert K. Sawyer, Military Advisors in Korea: KMAG in Peace and War (Washington, D.C.: Office of Military History, U.S. Army, 1962). It should be noted, however, that KMAG officers played a key role in directing the suppression of the Yosu rebellion in 1948. See Halliday and Cumings, Korea, pp. 40,48.
  • Tunstall, Julian , 1953. I Fought in Korea . London: Lawrence and Wishart; 1953. pp. 25–25.
  • Cumings, , Origins . Vol. 2. pp. 719–719.
  • Cumings, , 1983. "What South Korea did that the FO documented". In: Guardian . London. 1983.
  • Bromberger, , Retour . pp. 158–159, Department of State.
  • Foreign Relations . pp. 952–952.
  • Vining, Elizabeth Gray , 1972. Windows for the Crown Prince . London: Michael Joseph; 1972. pp. 314–314.
  • Goulden, Joseph C. , 1982. Korea: The Untold Story of the War . New York: Times Books; 1982. pp. 250–251.
  • Knox, , Korean War . pp. 413–413.
  • Tunstall, , I Fought . pp. 29–30.
  • Bromberger , Retour . pp. 158–158.
  • McCormack, , Cold War . pp. 116–116.
  • 1950. New York Times . 1950.
  • Voorhees, Melvin B. , 1953. Korean Tales . London: Seeker and Warburg; 1953. pp. 189–189, and Hal-liday and Cumings, Korea, p. 92.
  • Noble, Harold Joyce , 1975. Embassy at War . Seattle and London: University of Washington Press; 1975. pp. 154–156.
  • Cumings, , Origins . Vol. 2. pp. 719–719.
  • 1989. America's Secret Army: The Untold Story of the Counter Intelligence Corps . London: Grafton; 1989, has very little to say about the Korean War.
  • McCormack, , Cold War . pp. 135–135.
  • 1950. Daily Worker . 1950.
  • Sebald, William , 1965. With Mac Arthur in Japan: A Personal History of the Occupation . New York: Norton; 1965. pp. 202–202, memorandum of conference, 21 Oct. 1950, State Department Decimal File, 795.0221/10–2150, National Archives, Wake Island Meeting, U.S. State Department, Foreign Relations, pp. 959-60. The British suspected that MacArthur had a secret agreement with Rhee. See Ra Jong-yil, “Political Settlement in Korea,” in The Korean War in History, ed. James Cotton and Ian Neary (Manchester: University of Manchester Press, 1989), p. 61.
  • MacDonald, , Korea . pp. 60–61.
  • Muccio to Secretary of State, 1950. Foreign Relations . 1950. pp. 984–985, Department of State, Philippe Daudy noted the impossibility of separating the security function of these groups from their role as political agents of Syngman Rhee. See Bromberger et al., Retour, pp. 164-65.
  • MacDonald, , Korea . pp. 42–43, Embassy in Washington to Foreign Office, 30 Oct. 1950, FK1022/249 F0371/94178, PRO. Rusk claimed that ROK atrocities occurred in the heat of battle and were provoked by the conduct of the North Koreans-“I said that it is not easy to curb troops who find their comrades tied together and shot,” memo by Rusk, 28 Oct. 1950, Department of State, Foreign Relations, pp. 1004-5. This, however, did not answer the question of what was happening in cold blood far behind the lines.
  • Foreign Relations . Presented at Wake Island Meeting.
  • 1950. Presented at Foreign Relations, memorandum of conference, 21 Oct. 1950, State Department Decimal File, 795A.0221/10–2150, National Archives; Webb to UN Delegation, 26 Sept. 1950, Department of State, Foreign Relations, pp. 781-82.
  • 1950. New York Times . 1950.
  • 1950. "U.S. Courses of Action In Korea". In: Foreign Relations . Department of State; 1950. pp. 712–721.
  • Appleman, , South . pp. 721–728, Andrew Geer, The New Breed: The Story of the U.S. Marines in Korea(New York: Harper, 1952), pp. 192-215; Almond to Walker, 29 Oct. 1950, RG 9, Box 83, X Corps in October 1950, MacArthur Library, Norfolk, Virginia; Appleman, South, pp. 721-28.
  • Gil, Kim Han , Modern History of Korea . pp. 304–309.
  • Appleman, , South . pp. 721–728, FEC Intelligence, 16 Nov. 1950, RG 6, Box 57, No.2990, MacArthur Library; FEC Intelligence, 27 Nov. 1950, RG 6, Box 58, No. 3001, MacArthur Library; Marshall to Acheson, 19 Jan. 1951, RG 218, Box 29, JSPC853/81/D, Modern Military Records, National Archives. For a comprehensive account of the guerrilla war, see Cummings, Origins, vol. 2, pp. 724-45.
  • Appleman, , South . pp. 721–728, Chun Se Bong, The People of the Fighting Village (Pyongyang: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1955).
  • 1988. Enter the Dragon: China at War in Korea . London: Sidgwick and Jackson; 1988. pp. 227–228, and Robert A. Scalapino and Chong Sik Lee, Communism in Korea, Part 1: The Movement (Berkley, Los Angeles and London: University of California Press, 1972), pp. 411-12. Although the leadership opposed indiscriminate action against suspected collaborators, and eventually brought killing under control, other forms of discrimination persisted. As late as 5 August 1953, Kim II Sung complained that in Ongjin Peninsula and Kaesong, territory liberated from the ROK during the war, local officials were treating as collaborators the families of the 60–70 percent of the population deported by the retreating enemy. Kim II Sung, “Report Delivered at the Sixth Plenary Meeting of the Central Committee of the Workers' Party of Korea,” On The Building Of The People's Government (Pyongyang: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1978), vol. 1, pp. 358-59.
  • The American Imperialists Started the Korean War . pp. 230–231, Kim Han Gil, Modern History of Korea, pp. 306-7; Interview by author, Sinchon, 16 Sept. 1988; and “War Crimes of the U.S. Forces in Korea and Northeast China,” Reports of the Commission of the International Association of Democratic Lawyers, Supplement to New Times (China), no. 16 (Apr. 1952), pp. 6-8.
  • The American Imperialists Started the Korean War . pp. 232–233, A survivor of the massacre of the children, Kim Myong Ja, was interviewed by Thames TV, “Korea: The Unknown War,” program 4. Although DPRK publications attribute direct responsibility for the atrocities at Sinchon to the United States, they also note that landlords and other reactionaries assembled in the area and were encouraged by the United States to commit crimes against the Korean people. Since the UN Command was the occupation authority, and since the UN had delegated responsibility for this command to Washington, the United States bears the ultimate responsibility, regardless who actually committed the atrocities.
  • Masatsugu, Matsumoto , 1977. Travels in Korea . Pyongyang: Foreign Languages Publishing House; 1977. pp. 212–213.
  • Portway . pp. 60–60.
  • Tunstall, , I Fought . pp. 38–39, Bromberger et al., Retour, pp.158-59,164-65; W. Ellery Anderson, Banner Over Pusan (London: Evans, 1960), pp. 36-37; Rene Cutforth, Korean Reporter (London: Allan Wingate, 1952), pp. 38-39; Cosbie, Three Winters Cold, p. 220; RG 319, Army Command Reports 1949–1954, Eighth Army, Unit Diaries, Histories and Reports, 24th Infantry, G-2 Section, Dec. 1950, Box 3522. 1st Cavalry Division, Command Report, Box 4419, Dec. 1950, Washington National Records Center.
  • Halliday, , and Cumings, , Korea . pp. 84–84.
  • Farrar-Hockley, , British Part . pp. 237–237, See also Baillie, High Tension, p. 266, and New York Times, 12 Dec. 1950. In October/November 1950 new ROK units were activated to deal with southern guerrillas and replace U.S. divisions sent to reinforce the UN Command in the North. Appleman, South, pp. 618-19, 721, 771.
  • Henderson, , Korea . pp. 164–164.
  • Ridgway, Matthew B. , 1967. The Korean War . New York: Doubleday; 1967. pp. 191–191, Ridgway to Secretary of Defense, 25 Jan. 1952, RG 330, Sec Def CD092 (Korea), Jan.-Feb. 1952, Box 319, Modern Military Records, National Archives. The U.S. official history, Walter G. Hermes, Truce Tent and Fighting Front (Washington, D.C.: Office of Military History, U.S. Army, 1962), quotes a figure of 8,000 guerrillas, less than half Ridgway's estimate. Hermes notes, however, that 9,000 were killed or captured during RATKILLER, suggesting either that “there were far more guerrillas to begin with or a great many innocent bystanders were caught up in the dragnet,” p. 183.
  • Merrill, John , 1980. "The Cheju-do Rebellion". In: The Journal of Korean Studies . Vol. 2. 1980. pp. 194–195.
  • Matsumoto, , Travels in Korea . pp. 211–211.
  • Corless, John , 1950. Hansard Parliamentary Debates (Commons) . Vol. 483. London. 1950, of Reuters quoted in the Daily Worker, 8 Dec. 1950; cols. 575-76.
  • MacDonald, , Korea . pp. 84–85, Cutforth, Korean Reporter, pp. 49-52.
  • 1951. Report on Atrocities . 1951, FK1661/27 F0371/92848, Public Records Office.
  • Thompson, , Cry Korea . pp. 151–151, See also Bromberger et al, Retour, p. 153.
  • Korea: The Unknown War , program 4.
  • Karig, W. , Cagle, M.W. , and Manson, F.A. , 1952. Battle Report: The War in Korea . New York: Farrar and Rinehart; 1952. pp. 111–112.
  • MacDonald, , Korea . pp. 234–234.
  • Hess, Dean , 1956. Battle Hymn . New York: Mcgraw-Hill; 1956. pp. 175–175, Interview by author, Pyongyang, 21 Sept. 1987.
  • Tunstall, , "I Fought". In: Army Command Reports 1949–54 . pp. 49–49, RG319; Eighth Army, Unit Diaries, Histories and Reports, 24th Infantry Division, G-2 Section, Dec. 1950; Box 3522, 1st Cavalry Division, Command Report, Dec. 1950, Box 4419, Washington National Records Center.
  • Bernstein, Barton J. , 1981. "New Light on the Korean War". In: International History Review . Vol. 3. 1981. pp. 268–268, no. 2; Bernstein underestimates the scale of guerrilla warfare in Korea.
  • Korea: The Unknown War , Program 4.
  • Appleman, , South . pp. 478–478, According to Baillie (High Tension, p. 260), villagers were “cleared out” of a wide band of territory around the entire Pusan perimeter to guard against guerrillas and infiltrators. On the problems posed by southern guerrillas, see also William F. Dean, General Dean's Story (New York: Viking, 1954), p. 103; Bromberger et al., Retour, pp. 18-19, 35-37; and Jon Halliday, “What Happened in Korea?” Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars, vol. 5, no. 3 (Nov. 1973), pp. 36-44.
  • RG319, Army Command Reports , Eighth Army, Unit Diaries, Histories and Reports, 24th Infantry Division, G-2 Section, Dec. 1950, Box 3522, Washington National Records Center.
  • 1950. Command Report . Box 4419, Washington National Records Center; 1950.
  • Henderson, , Korea . pp. 163–164, Se Jin Kim, Modern History, p. 70; Chung Kyungmo, “The Second Liberation of South Korea and the Democratization of Japan,” The Japan Interpreter, vol. 9, no. 2, p. 194.
  • Dower, John , 1987. War Without Mercy . London: Faber; 1987, Phillipe Daudy interview, Thames TV, “Korea: The Unknown War,” Program 3; Thompson, Cry Korea, p. 164. On this phenomenon in the earlier war against Japan, see.
  • Gayn, Mark , 1981. Japan Diary . Rutland, VT: Charles E. Tuttle; 1981. pp. 349–395, Tokyo.
  • Kim, Agnes Davis , 1953. I Married a Korean . London: Victor Gollancz; 1953. pp. 213–213.
  • Halliday, , and Cumings, , Korea . pp. 88–88, Webel to Stephens, 15 Nov. 1957, RG 319, OCMH Appleman Manuscript-External Review Box 746, Modern Military Records, National Archives: “They were coming in completely cold and one Korean looked exactly like another.” See also Bromberger et al., Retour, p. 70.
  • 1950. New York Times . 1950.
  • Korea: The Unknown War , Program 4.
  • Cumings, , Origins . Vol. 2. pp. 722–722.
  • Thompson, , Cry Korea . pp. 39–39.
  • Cry Korea . pp. 164–164, Knox, Korean War, p. 396.
  • Knox, , Korean War . pp. 417–417.
  • Thompson, , Cry Korea . pp. 134–135, Gayn, Japan Diary, p. 410; Agnes Davis Kim, Politics, pp. 211-12. According to Kim, Koreans found it difficult to adjust to U.S. traffic rules because under the Japanese, vehicles had used the opposite side of the road.
  • Voorhees, , Korean Tales . pp. 250–250.
  • Monat, Pawel , 1964. Spy in the U.S. . London: Frederick Muller; 1964. pp. 207–207, Monat, a Polish intelligence officer who later defected, noted that the conduct of the Chinese in Korea “was exemplary.” They did not loot and helped the peasants gather the crops. See also Spurr, Enter the Dragon, p. 154.
  • Knox, , Korean War . pp. 394–394, See also Thompson, Cry Korea, p. 70.
  • Sampson, Francis , and Ridgway, Matthew , 1951. Matthew Ridgway Papers . Carlisle, PA.: Box 19, CINCFE Correspondence N-S, Carlisle Barracks; 1951.
  • Appleman, , South . pp. 654–658.
  • 1950. New York Times . 1950, and Cutforth, Korean Reporter, p. 34.
  • Ridgway, , and Boiling, , 1951. Matthew Ridgway Papers . Box 20, Special File, Dec. 1950-Mar.l951, Carlisle Barracks; 1951.
  • Almond, , and Edder, , 1951. "Edward M. Almond Papers". In: Official Letters . CG X Corps, Carlisle Barracks; 1951.
  • Voorhees, , Korean Tales . pp. 149–149.
  • Cumings, , Origins . Vol. 2. pp. 716–716.
  • Thompson, , Cry Korea . pp. 94–94.

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