Violence in the city that belongs to no one: urban distinctiveness and interconnected insecurities in Nairobi (Kenya)

References

• Abello Colak, A. and J. Pearce, 2015. ‘Securing the Global City?: An Analysis of the “Medellin Model” through Participatory Research’. Conflict, Security & Development 15(3), 197–228.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Adam, A.H., 2009. ‘Kenyan Nubians: Standing up to Statelessness’. Forced Migration Review 32, 19–20.
   Google Scholar
• African Population and Health Research Center (APHRC), 2014. Population and Health Dynamics in Nairobi’s Informal Settlements: Report of the Nairobi Cross-Sectional Slums Survey (NCSS) 2012. African Population and Health Research Center, Nairobi.
   Google Scholar
• AlSayyad, N. and M. Guvenc, 2015. ‘Virtual Uprisings: On the Interaction of New Social Media, Traditional Media Coverage and Urban Space during the “Arab Spring”’. Urban Studies 52(11), 2018–2034.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amis, P., 1984. ‘Squatters or Tenants: The Commercialization of Unauthorized Housing in Nairobi’. World Development 12(1), 87–96.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amnesty International, 2017. ‘Kenya: Violence, Killings and Intimidation amid Election Chaos’. Amnesty International, 30 October.
   Google Scholar
• Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch (HRW), 2017. ‘Kill Those Criminals’: Security Forces Violations in Kenya’s August 2017 Elections. Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch, 16 October.
   Google Scholar
• Anderson, D., 2002. ‘Vigilantes, Violence and the Politics of Public Order in Kenya’. African Affairs 101(405), 531–555.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Archer, D. and R. Gartner, 1987. Violence and Crime in Cross-national Perspective. Yale University Press, New Haven, CT.
   Google Scholar
• Auyero, J., P. Bourgois and N. Scheper-Hughes (eds.), 2015. Violence at the Urban Margins. Oxford University Press, New York.
   Google Scholar
• Balaton-Chrimes, S., 2015. Ethnicity, Democracy and Citizenship in Africa: Political Marginalisation of Kenya’s Nubians. Ashgate, Farnham.
   Google Scholar
• Barnes, N., 2017. ‘Criminal Politics: An Integrated Approach to the Study of Organized Crime, Politics, and Violence’. Perspectives on Politics 15(4), 967–987.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BBC News, 2005. ‘Fury at Kenya Shoot-to-Kill Order’, 23 March. Available at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4374649.stm [Accessed 18 May 2018].
   Google Scholar
• Beall, J., T. Goodfellow and D. Rodgers, 2013. ‘Cities and Conflict in Fragile States in the Developing World’. Urban Studies 50(15), 3065–3083.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bekoe, D. and A. Oduraa (eds.), 2012. Voting in Fear: Electoral Violence in Sub-Saharan Africa. United States Institute of Peace, Washington, DC.
   Google Scholar
• Bishop, R. and G. Clancey, 2004. ‘The City-as-Target, or Perpetuation and Death’. In Cities, War, and Terrorism: Towards an Urban Geopolitics, ed. S. Graham. Blackwell, Malden, MA, 54–74.
   Google Scholar
• Björkdahl, A. and I. Gusic, 2013. ‘The Divided City: A Space for Frictional Peacebuilding’. Peacebuilding 1(3), 317–333.
   Google Scholar
• Boone, C., 2011. ‘Politically Allocated Land Rights and the Geography of Electoral Violence: The Case of Kenya in the 1990s’. Comparative Political Studies 44(10), 1311–1342.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boone, C. and M. Wahman, 2015. ‘Rural Bias in African Electoral Systems: Legacies of Unequal Representation in African Democracies’. Electoral Studies 40, 335–346.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Branch, D., N. Cheeseman and L. Gardner (eds.), 2010. Our Turn to Eat: Politics in Kenya since 1950. Lit Verlag, Münster.
   Google Scholar
• Briceño-León, R. and V. Zubillaga, 2002. ‘Violence and Globalization in Latin America’. Current Sociology 50(1), 19–37.
   Google Scholar
• Buhaug, H., 2010. ‘Dude, Where’s My Conflict? LSG, Relative Strength, and the Location of Civil War’. Conflict Management and Peace Science 27(2), 107–128.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buhaug, H. and H. Urdal, 2013. ‘An Ubanization Bomb? Population Growth and Social Disorder in Cities’. Global Environmental Change 23(1), 1–10.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Büscher, K., 2018. ‘African Cities and Violent Conflict: The Urban Dimension of Conflict and Post Conflict Dynamics in Central and Eastern Africa’. Journal of Eastern African Studies 12(2), 193–210.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cannon, B. and W. Iyekekpolo, 2018. ‘Explaining Transborder Terrorist Attacks: The Cases of Boko Haram and Al-Shabaab’. African Security 11(4), 370–396.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chege, M., 1981. ‘A Tale of Two Slums: Electoral Politics in Mathare and Dagoretti’. Review of African Political Economy 8(20), 74–88.
   Google Scholar
• de Smedt, J., 2009. ‘“No Raila, No Peace!” Big Man Politics and Election Violence at the Kibera Grassroots’. African Affairs 108(433), 581–598.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Smedt, J., 2011. ‘The Nubis of Kibera: A Social History of the Nubians and Kibera Slums’. PhD diss., Leiden University.
   Google Scholar
• Diphoorn, T., 2016. ‘“Surveillance of the Surveillers”: Regulation of the Private Security Industry in South Africa and Kenya’. African Studies Review 59(2), 161–182.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elfversson, E. and K. Höglund, 2018. ‘Home of Last Resort: Urban Land Conflict and the Nubians in Kibera, Kenya’. Urban Studies 55(8), 1749–1765.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elischer, S., 2010. ‘Political Parties, Elections and Ethnicity in Kenya’. In Our Turn to Eat: Politics in Kenya since 1950, eds. D. Branch, N. Cheeseman and L. Gardner. Lit Verlag, Münster, 199–220.
   Google Scholar
• Geschiere, P. and J. Gugler, 1998. ‘The Urban–Rural Connection: Changing Issues of Belonging and Identification’. Africa 68(3), 309–319.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gimode, E.A., 2001. ‘An Anatomy of Violent Crime and Insecurity in Kenya: The Case of Nairobi, 1985–1999’. Africa Development/Afrique et Développement 26(1/2), 295–335.
   Google Scholar
• Golooba-Mutebi, F. and A. Sjögren, 2017. ‘From Rural Rebellions to Urban Riots: Political Competition and Changing Patterns of Violent Political Revolt in Uganda’. Commonwealth & Comparative Politics 55(1), 22–40.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goodfellow, T., 2018. ‘Seeing Political Settlements through the City: A Framework for Comparative Analysis of Urban Transformation’. Development and Change 49(1), 199–222.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Graham, S., 2011. Cities Under Siege: The New Military Urbanism. Verso Books, London.
   Google Scholar
• Gusic, I., forthcoming. Contesting Peace in the Postwar City: Belfast, Mitrovica, and Mostar. Palgrave, Basingstoke.
   Google Scholar
• Hashim, A.S., 2016. ‘Cities under Siege: Mass Casualty Urban Terrorism Assaults’. Policy Paper, S. Rajaratnam School of International Studies, Singapore.
   Google Scholar
• Hassan, M., 2017. ‘The Strategic Shuffle: Ethnic Geography, the Internal Security Apparatus, and Elections in Kenya’. American Journal of Political Science 61(2), 382–395.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haugerud, A., 1997. The Culture of Politics in Modern Kenya. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
   Google Scholar
• Haynes, J., 2005. ‘Islamic Militancy in East Africa’. Third World Quarterly 26(8), 1321–1339.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Höglund, K., 2008. Peace Negotiations in the Shadow of Violence. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Leiden.
   Google Scholar
• Höglund, K., 2009. ‘Electoral Violence in Conflict-Ridden Societies: Concepts, Causes, and Consequences’. Terrorism and Political Violence 21(3), 412–427.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Human Rights Watch (HRW), 2013. ‘Kenya: Don’t Expand Police Powers’. Human Rights Watch, 12 September.
   Google Scholar
• Jacobs, A., 2011. ‘Nairobi Burning’. PRIF-Report, no. 110. Peace Research Institute Frankfurt, Frankfurt.
   Google Scholar
• Joireman, S.F. and R.S. Vanderpoel, 2011. ‘In Search of Order: State Systems of Property Rights and Their Failings’. In Where There Is No Government: Enforcing Property Rights in Common Law Africa, ed. S.F. Joireman. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 129–152.
   Google Scholar
• Kagwanja, P. and R. Southall (eds.), 2010. Kenya’s Uncertain Democracy: The Electoral Crisis of 2008. Routledge, London.
   Google Scholar
• Kagwanja, P.M., 2003. ‘Facing Mount Kenya or Facing Mecca? the Mungiki, Ethnic Violence and the Politics of the Moi Succession in Kenya, 1987–2002’. African Affairs 102(406), 25–49.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Katumanga, M., 2005. ‘A City under Siege: Banditry and Modes of Accumulation in Nairobi, 1991–2004’. Review of African Political Economy 32(106), 505–520.
   Google Scholar
• Kenya National Bureau of Statistics (KNBS), 2009. Kenya Population and Housing Census. Kenya National Bureau of Statistics, Nairobi.
   Google Scholar
• Kilcullen, D., 2013. Out of the Mountains: The Coming Age of the Urban Guerrilla. Hurst, London.
   Google Scholar
• Kimani, G., 2016. ‘“Nairobi Sio Gatundu, We Own Nairobi NOT You” – Hon Dennis Waweru TELLS Uhuru’. Kenya Today, 2 September.
   Google Scholar
• Kimenju, G.N., 2015. ‘Determinants of Reporting or Failing to Report A Crime to Police: A Case Study of Githurai 45, Nairobi’. MA diss., University of Nairobi.
   Google Scholar
• Kimenyi, M.S. and N.S. Ndung’u, 2005. ‘Sporadic Ethnic Violence: Why Has Kenya Not Experienced a Full-Blown Civil War?’. In Understanding Civil War: Evidence and Analysis, eds. P. Collier and S. Nicholas. World Bank, Washington, DC, 123–156.
   Google Scholar
• Kiyu, G.M., 2013. Politics and Slum Upgrading in Kenya: A Case Study on the Influence of Slum Upgrading in Kibera. Peter Lang, Frankfurt.
   Google Scholar
• Klaus, K. and J.W. Paller, 2017. ‘Defending the City, Defending Votes: Campaign Strategies in Urban Ghana’. The Journal of Modern African Studies 55(4), 681–708.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klopp, J.M., 2008. ‘Remembering the Destruction of Muoroto: Slum Demolitions, Land and Democratisation in Kenya’. African Studies 67(3), 295–314.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krug, E.G., L.L. Dahlberg, J.A. Mercy, A.B. Zwi and R. Lozano, 2002. World Report on Violence and Health. World Health Organization, Geneva.
   Google Scholar
• LeBas, A., 2013. ‘Violence and Urban Order in Nairobi, Kenya and Lagos, Nigeria’. Studies in Comparative International Development 48(3), 240–262.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lefebvre, H., 1996. Writings on Cities. Blackwell, Oxford.
   Google Scholar
• Lind, J., P. Mutahi and M. Oosterom, 2015. ‘Tangled Ties: Al-Shabaab and Political Volatility in Kenya’. IDS evidence report, no. 130. Institute of Development Studies, Brighton.
   Google Scholar
• Lindell, I. and M. Utas, 2012. ‘Networked City Life in Africa: Introduction’. Urban Forum 23(4), 409–414.
   Google Scholar
• Lombard, M. and C. Rakodi, 2016. ‘Urban Land Conflict in the Global South: Towards an Analytical Framework’. Urban Studies 53(13), 2683–2699.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lonsdale, J., 2008. ‘Soil, Work, Civilisation, and Citizenship in Kenya’. Journal of Eastern African Studies 2(2), 305–314.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lynch, G., 2011. I Say to You: Ethnic Politics and the Kalenjin in Kenya. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL.
   Google Scholar
• Lynch, G., 2013. ‘Democratisation and “Criminal” Violence in Kenya’. In Democracy and Violence: Global Debates and Local Challenges, eds. J. Schwarzmantel and H.J. Kraetzschmar. Routledge, London, 161–184.
   Google Scholar
• Macharia, K., 1992. ‘Slum Clearance and the Informal Economy in Nairobi’. The Journal of Modern African Studies 30(2), 221–236.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marx, C., 2016. ‘Extending the Analysis of Urban Land Conflict: An Example from Johannesburg’. Urban Studies 53(13), 2779–2795.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maupeu, H., 2010. ‘Political Activism in Nairobi: Violence and Resilience of Kenyan Authoritarianism’. In Nairobi Today: The Paradox of a Fragmented City, eds. H. Charton-Bigot and D. Rodriguez-Torres. Mkuki Na Nyota Publ., Institut Français de Recherche en Afrique, Dar es Salaam, 381–404.
   Google Scholar
• McMichael, G., 2014. ‘Rethinking Access to Land and Violence in Post-War Cities: Reflections from Juba, Southern Sudan’. Environment and Urbanization 26(2), 389–400.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Médard, C., 2010. ‘City Planning in Nairobi: The Stakes, the People, the Sidetracking’. In Nairobi Today: The Paradox of a Fragmented City, eds. H. Charton-Bigot and D. Rodriguez-Torres. Mkuki Na Nyota Publ., Institut Français de Recherche en Afrique, Dar es Salaam, 25–60.
   Google Scholar
• Moncada, E., 2013. ‘The Politics of Urban Violence: Challenges for Development in the Global South’. Studies in Comparative International Development 48(3), 217–239.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moser, C.O.N., 2004. ‘Urban Violence and Insecurity: An Introductory Roadmap’. Environment and Urbanization 16(2), 3–16.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moser, C.O.N. and C. McIlwaine, 2014. ‘New Frontiers in Twenty-First Century Urban Conflict and Violence’. Environment and Urbanization 26(2), 331–344.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mueller, S.D., 2008. ‘The Political Economy of Kenya’s Crisis’. Journal of Eastern African Studies 2(2), 185–210.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mugendi, E. and A. Karanja, 2013. ‘Nairobi Past and Present’. The East African, 13 June.
   Google Scholar
• Muggah, R., 2016. ‘Is Urban Terrorism the New Normal? Probably’. World Economic Forum Blog, 17 January.
   Google Scholar
• Murunga, G.G.R., 1999. ‘Urban Violence in Kenya’s Transition to Pluralist Politics, 1982–1992’. Africa Development 24(1), 165–198.
   Google Scholar
• Nathan, N.L., 2019. Electoral Politics and Africa’s Urban Transition: Class and Ethnicity in Ghana. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
   Google Scholar
• Obala, L.M. and M. Mattingly, 2014. ‘Ethnicity, Corruption and Violence in Urban Land Conflict in Kenya’. Urban Studies 51(13), 2735–2751.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ojamaa, B., 2016. ‘CS, All Kenyans “Free to Run” for City Governor’. The Star, 20 August.
   Google Scholar
• Okech, A., 2018. ‘Boundary Anxieties and Infrastructures of Violence: Somali Identity in Post-Westgate Kenya’. Third World Thematics: A TWQ Journal 3(2), 293–309.
   Google Scholar
• Omenya, A. and G. Lubaale, 2012. ‘Understanding the Tipping Point of Urban Conflict: The Case of Nairobi, Kenya’. Urban Tipping Point Working Paper, no. 6, Manchester.
   Google Scholar
• Omolo, K., 2002. ‘Political Ethnicity in the Democratisation Process in Kenya’. African Studies 61(2), 209–221.
   Google Scholar
• Osse, A., 2016. ‘Police Reform in Kenya: A Process of “Meddling Through”’. Policing and Society 26(8), 907–924.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Østby, G., 2016. ‘Rural–Urban Migration, Inequality and Urban Social Disorder: Evidence from African and Asian Cities’. Conflict Management and Peace Science 33(5), 491–515.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Otiso, K.M., 2018. ‘Evictions in Nairobi: Why the City Has a Problem and What Can Be Done to Fix It’. The Conversation, 24 July. Available at: https://theconversation.com [Accessed 15 May 2019].
   Google Scholar
• Oucho, J.O., 2002. Undercurrents of Ethnic Conflicts in Kenya. Brill, Leiden.
   Google Scholar
• Raleigh, C., 2015. ‘Urban Violence Patterns across African States’. International Studies Review 17(1), 90–106.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rasmussen, J., 2012. ‘Inside the System, Outside the Law: Operating the Matatu Sector in Nairobi’. Urban Forum 23(4), 415–432.
   Google Scholar
• Rink, A. and K. Sharma, 2016. ‘The Determinants of Religious Radicalization: Evidence from Kenya’. Journal of Conflict Resolution 62(6), 1229–1261.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosenberg, M.J., 2001. ‘At Least 12 Killed in Clashes in East Africa’s Largest Slum’. Associated Press Newswires, 4 December.
   Google Scholar
• Ruteere, M., P. Mutahi, B. Mitchell and J. Lind, 2013. Missing the Point: Violence Reduction and Policy Misadventures in Nairobi’s Poor Neighbourhoods. Institute of Development Studies, East Sussex.
   Google Scholar
• Schuberth, M., 2015. ‘A Transformation from Political to Criminal Violence? Politics, Organised Crime and the Shifting Functions of Haiti’s Urban Armed Groups’. Conflict, Security & Development 15(2), 169–196.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schuberth, M., 2018. ‘Hybrid Security Governance, Post-Election Violence and the Legitimacy of Community-Based Armed Groups in Urban Kenya’. Journal of Eastern African Studies 12(2), 386–404.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sharp, D. and C. Panetta (eds.), 2016. Beyond the Square: Urbanism and the Arab Uprisings. Terreform, New York.
   Google Scholar
• Stavrou, A., 2002. ‘Crime in Nairobi: Results of a Citywide Victim Survey’. Safer Cities Series Vol. 4. UN-HABITAT, Nairobi.
   Google Scholar
• Thomson, H., H. Buhaug, E. Rosvold and H. Urdal, 2018. ‘Democracy, Elections and Urban Political Mobilization in the Developing World, 1960–2014’. Available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3054750 [Accessed 8 August 2018].
   Google Scholar
• Tilly, C., 2012. ‘Coercion, Capital, and European States’. In Contemporary Sociological Theory, 3rd ed., eds. C. Calhoun, J. Gerteis, J. Moody, S. Pfaff and V. Indermohan. Wiley-Blackwell, Chichester, 251–265.
   Google Scholar
• Tuch, S.A., 1987. ‘Urbanism, Region, and Tolerance Revisited: The Case of Racial Prejudice’. American Sociological Review 52(4), 504–510.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• United Nations (UN), 2010. ‘Report of the Monitoring Group on Somalia Pursuant to Security Council Resolution 1853, 2008. S/2010/91’. United Nations Security Council.
   Google Scholar
• United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UN-DESA), 2016. The World’s Cities in 2016: Data Booklet. United Nations, New York.
   Google Scholar
• van Acker, T., 2018. ‘From Rural Rebellion to Urban Uprising? A Sociospatial Perspective on Bujumbura’s Conflict History’. Journal of Eastern African Studies 12(2), 310–328.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Stapele, N., 2016. ‘“We are Not Kenyans”: Extra-Judicial Killings, Manhood and Citizenship in Mathare, a Nairobi Ghetto’. Conflict, Security & Development 16(4), 301–325.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wahman, M. and E. Goldring, forthcoming. ‘Pre-Electoral Violence and Territorial Control: Political Dominance and Subnational Election Violence in Africa’. Journal of Peace Research.
   Google Scholar
• Wilson, T.C., 1985. ‘Urbanism and Tolerance: A Test of Some Hypotheses Drawn from Wirth and Stouffer’. American Sociological Review 50(1), 117–123.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Winton, A., 2004. ‘Urban Violence: A Guide to the Literature’. Environment and Urbanization 16(2), 165–184.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar