Needing to be “perfect” to be loved: the intersection of body dysmorphic disorder, sexual identity, and gay culture in gay men. A qualitative study

References

• American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. (5th ed.). American Psychiatric Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Bjornsson, A. S., Didie, E. R., & Phillips, K. A. (2010). Body dysmorphic disorder. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 12(2), 221–232.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Boroughs, M., Krawczyk, R., & Thompson, J. (2010). Body dysmorphic disorder among diverse racial/ethnic and sexual orientation groups: Prevalence estimates and associated factors. Sex Roles, 63(9-10), 725–737. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-010-9831-1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buhlmann, U., & Winter, A. (2011). Perceived ugliness: An update on treatment-relevant aspects of body dysmorphic disorder. Current Psychiatry Reports, 13(4), 283–288.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carlat, D. J., Camargo, C. A., & Herzog, D. B. (1997). Eating disorders in males: A report on 135 patients. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154(8), 1127–1132.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Creswell, J. W. (2013). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches (3rd ed.). SAGE Publications, Inc.
   Google Scholar
• Didie, E. R., Kelly, M. M., & Phillips, K. A. (2010). Clinical features of body dysmorphic disorder. Psychiatric Annals, 40(7), 310–316. https://doi.org/10.3928/00485713-20100701-03
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duggan, S. J., & McCreary, D. R. (2004). Body image, eating disorders, and the drive for muscularity in gay and heterosexual men: The influence of media images. Journal of Homosexuality, 47(3-4), 45–58. https://doi.org/10.1300/J082v47n03_03
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duncan, D. (2007). Out of the closet and into the gym: Gay men and body image in Melbourne, Australia. The Journal of Men’s Studies, 15(3), 331–346. https://doi.org/10.3149/jms.1503.331
   Google Scholar
• Grant, J. E., Won, K. S., & Crow, S. J. (2001). Prevalence and clinical features of body dysmorphic disorder in adolescent and adult psychiatric inpatients. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 62, 517–522.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Griffiths, S., Murray, S. B., & Touyz, S. (2015). Extending the masculinity hypothesis: An investigation of gender role conformity, body dissatisfaction, and disordered eating in young heterosexual men. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 16(1), 108–114. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035958
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gunstad, J., & Phillips, K. A. (2003). Axis I comorbidity in body dysmorphic disorder. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 44(4), 270–276.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mayville, S., Katz, R. C., Gipson, M. T., & Cabral, K. (1999). Assessing the prevalence of body dysmorphic disorder in an ethnically diverse group of adolescents. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 8(3), 357–362. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022023514730
   Google Scholar
• McArdle, K. A., & Hill, M. S. (2009). Understanding body dissatisfaction in gay and heterosexual men: The roles of self-esteem, media, and peer influence. Men and Masculinities, 11(5), 511–532. https://doi.org/10.1177/1097184X07303728
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Merriam, S. B. (2009). Qualitative research: a guide to design and implementation. Jossey-Bass.
   Google Scholar
• Miles, M. B., Huberman, A. M., & Saldaña, J. (2014). Qualitative data analysis: A methods sourcebook, third edition. Sage Publications, Inc.
   Google Scholar
• Morgan-Sowada, H. M. (2018). Relationships and attachment in individuals with body dysmorphic disorder:A qualitative study [Doctoral dissertation, University of Iowa]. https://doi.org/10.17077/etd.04pj4m1u
   Google Scholar
• Phillips, K. A. (1999). Body dysmorphic disorder: The distress of imagined ugliness. The American Journal of Psychology, 148, 1138–1149.
   Google Scholar
• Phillips, K. A. (2005). The broken mirror: Understanding and treating body dysmorphic disorder (Rev. and Expanded ed.). Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Phillips, K. A., Didie, E. R., Menard, W., Pagano, M. E., Fay, C., & Weisberg, R. B. (2006). Clinical features of body dysmorphic disorder in adolescents and adults. Psychiatry Research, 141(3), 305–314. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2005.09.014
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Phillips, K. A., & Kaye, W. H. (2007). The relationship of body dysmorphic disorder and eating disorders to obsessive-compulsive disorder. CNS Spectrums, 12(5), 347–358. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1092852900021155
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Phillips, K. A., McElroy, S. L., Keck, P. E., Jr., Pope, H. G., Jr., & Hudson, J. I. (1993). Body dysmorphic disorder: 30 cases of imagined ugliness. American Journal of Psychiatry, 150, 302–308.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Phillips, K. A., Menard, W., Fay, C., & Weisberg, R. (2005). Demographic characteristics, phenomenology, comorbidity, and family history in 200 individuals with body dysmorphic disorder. Psychosomatics, 46(4), 317–325. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.psy.46.4.317
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rossman, G. B., & Rallis, S. F. (2012). Learning in the field: An introduction to qualitative research (3rd ed.). Sage Publications.
   Google Scholar
• Saldaña, J. (2015). Thinking qualitatively: Methods of mind. Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Salter, M. (2019, May). The problem with a fight against toxic masculinity. The Atlantic. Retrieved 11, 2019, from https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2019/02/toxic-masculinity-history/583411/
   Google Scholar
• Strauss, A., & Corbin, J (1998). Basics of qualitative research techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory (2nd edition). Sage Publications.
   Google Scholar
• van Manen, M. (1997). Researching lived experience: Human science for an action sensitive pedagogy (2nd ed.). Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Wilhelm, S., Buhlmann, U., Hayward, L. C., Greenberg, J. L., & Dimaite, R. (2010). A cognitive-behavioral treatment approach for body dysmorphic disorder. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 17(3), 241–247. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpra.2010.02.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yelland, C., & Tiggemann, M. (2003). Muscularity and the gay ideal: Body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in homosexual men. Eating Behaviors, 4(2), 107–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1471-0153(03)00014-X
   PubMedGoogle Scholar