A two-track CDM: improved incentives for sustainable development and offset production

References

• ADB (Asian Development Bank) . 2009 . Improving energy security and reducing carbon intensity in Asia and the Pacific , Manila : Asian Development Bank .
   Google Scholar
• Alfsen, K. H., & Moe, T. (2005). An international framework for constructing national indicators for policies to enhance sustainable development (Background Paper). Prepared for the UN Expert Group Meeting on Indicators of Sustainable Development in New York, 13–15 December 2005. New York: UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Division for Social Development.
   Google Scholar
• Bode , S. and Michaelowa , A. 2003 . Avoiding perverse effects of baseline and investment additionality determination in the case of renewable energy projects . Energy Policy , 31 : 505 – 517 . (doi:10.1016/S0301-4215(02)00076-9)
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boyd , E. , Hultman , N. , Roberts , J. T. , Corbera , E. , Cole , J. , Bozmoski , A. and Liverman , D. M. 2009 . Reforming the CDM for sustainable development: Lessons learned and policy futures . Environmental Science & Policy , 12 : 820 – 831 . (doi:10.1016/j.envsci.2009.06.007)
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown, K., Adger, W. N., Boyd, E., Corbera-Elizalde, E., & Shackley, S. (2004). How do CDM projects contribute to sustainable development? (Technical Report No. 16). Norwich: Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research.
   Google Scholar
• Bumpus , A. G. and Cole , J. C. 2010 . How can the current CDM deliver sustainable development? . Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change , 1 ( 4 ) : 541 – 547 . (doi:10.1002/wcc.57)
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bumpus , A. G. and Liverman , D. M. 2011 . “ Carbon colonialism? Offsets, greenhouse gas reductions and sustainable development ” . In Global political ecology , Edited by: Peet , R. , Watts , M. and Robbins , P. 203 – 224 . London : Routledge .
   Google Scholar
• CAN (Climate Action Network-International). (2009). Views on possible improvements to emissions trading and the project based mechanisms. Submission to the UNFCCC.
   Google Scholar
• Cohen , G. 2004 . Technology transfer: Strategic management in developing countries , New Delhi : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Cooper , C. 1973 . Science, technology and development: The political economy of technical advance in underdeveloped countries , Edited by: Cooper , C. London : Frank Cass .
   Google Scholar
• Cosbey , A. , Murphy , D. and Drexhage , J. 2007 . Market mechanisms for sustainable development: How do they fit in the various post-2012 climate efforts , Winnipeg : IISD International Institute for Sustainable Development .
   Google Scholar
• Cunha , K. B. , Walter , A. and Rei , F. 2007 . CDM implementation in Brazil's rural and isolated regions: The Amazonian case . Climate Change , 84 : 111 – 129 . (doi:10.1007/s10584-007-9272-1)
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deb , D. 2009 . Beyond developmentality: Constructing inclusive freedom and sustainablity , New Delhi : Daanish Books .
   Google Scholar
• Dechezleprêtre , A. , Glachant , M. and Ménière , Y. 2009 . Technology transfer by CDM projects: A comparison of Brazil, China, India and Mexico . Energy Policy , 37 ( 2 ) : 703 – 711 . (doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2008.10.007)
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Coninck , H. C. , Haake , F. and van der Linden , N. 2007 . Technology transfer in the Clean Development Mechanism . Climate Policy , 7 ( 5 ) : 444 – 456 . (doi:10.3763/cpol.2007.0724)
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Sepibus, J. (2009). The environmental integrity of the CDM mechanism – A legal analysis of its institutional and procedural Shortcomings (NCCR Trade Working Paper No. 2009/24). Bern: NCCR Trade Regulation, Swiss National Centre of Competence in Research. Retrieved from: http://www.phase1.nccr-trade.org/images/stories/research/header_ip6/environmental%20integrity%20CDM.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Ellis , J. , Winkler , H. , Corfee-Morlot , J. and Gagnon-Lebrun , F. 2007 . CDM: Taking stock and looking forward . Energy Policy , 35 ( 1 ) : 15 – 28 . (doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2005.09.018)
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ENB. (2011, December 13). Summary of the Durban climate change conference: 28 November–11 December 2011. Earth Negotiations Bulletin, p. 28.
   Google Scholar
• European Commission (EC). (2011). Commission regulation (EU) No. 550/2011 of 7 June 2011 on determining, pursuant to Directive 2003/87/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council, certain restrictions applicable to the use of international credits from projects involving industrial gases. Retrieved from http://emissions-euets.com/attachments/197_Commission%20Regulation%20No%20550_2011.pdf
   Google Scholar
• European Commission (EC). (2013a). Climate action – International carbon market. Retrieved from http://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/ets/linking/index_en.htm
   Google Scholar
• European Commission (EC). (2013b). Climate Action – EU wide voluntary harmonisation of JI/CDM project types accepted for compliance.
   Google Scholar
• Fuhr , H. and Lederer , M. 2009 . Varieties of carbon governance in newly industrializing countries . Journal of Environment & Development , 18 ( 4 ) : 327 – 345 . (doi:10.1177/1070496509347079)
   Google Scholar
• Garcia-Quijano , J. F. , Deckmyn , G. , Moons , E. , Proost , S. , Ceulemans , R. and Muys , B. 2005 . An integrated decision support framework for the prediction and evaluation of efficiency, environmental impact and total social cost of domestic and international forestry projects for greenhouse gas mitigation: Description and case studies . Ecology and Management , 207 ( 1–2 ) : 245 – 262 . (doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2004.10.030)
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Georgiou , P. , Tourkolias , C. and Diakoulaki , D. 2008 . A roadmap for selecting host countries of wind energy projects in the framework of the Clean Development Mechanism . Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews , 12 : 712 – 731 . (doi:10.1016/j.rser.2006.11.001)
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gillenwater , M. and Seres , S. 2011 . The Clean Development Mechanism. A review of the first international offset program , Arlington , VA : Pew Center on Global Climate Change .
   Google Scholar
• Glowacki, M. (2012). CERs and ERUs market as from 2013. Retrieved from http://www.emissions-euets.com/cers-erus-market-as-from-2013
   Google Scholar
• Goepel , M. 2010 . Formulating future just policies: Applying the Delhi sustainable law principles . Sustainability , 2 : 1694 – 1718 . (doi:10.3390/su2061694)
   Google Scholar
• Greenpeace. (2000). The Clean Development Mechanism: Used by renewable energy or abused by coal & nuclear (Briefing Paper for SB 12). Amsterdam: Greenpeace.
   Google Scholar
• Greiner , S. and Michaelowa , A. 2003 . Defining investment additionality for CDM projects – Practical approaches . Energy Policy , 31 : 1007 – 1015 . (doi:10.1016/S0301-4215(02)00142-8)
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GSF . 2006 . The Gold Standard. Manual for CDM project developers (Version 3) , Geneva : Gold Standard Foundation . Retrieved from http://www.cdmgoldstandard.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/11/DeveloperManual_GS-CER.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Haites , E. , Duan , M. and Seres , S. 2006 . Technology transfer by CDM projects . Climate Policy , 6 ( 3 ) : 327 – 344 . (doi:10.3763/cpol.2006.0621)
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hall, D. S., Levi, M., Pizer, W. A., & Ueno, T. (2008). Policy for developing country engagement (The Harvard Project on International Climate Agreements Discussion Paper 08-15). Cambridge, MA: Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs, Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University.
   Google Scholar
• Haya, B. (2009). Measuring emissions against an alternative future: Fundamental flaws in the structure of the Kyoto Protocol's Clean Development Mechanism (Energy and Resources Group Working Paper ERG09-001). Berkeley: University of California, Berkeley.
   Google Scholar
• Hepburn, C. (2009). International carbon finance and the Clean Development Mechanism. (Smith School Working Paper Series Climates of Change: Sustain-ability Challenges for Enterprise). Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment, University of Oxford, Oxford.
   Google Scholar
• Hultman , N. E. , Boyd , E. , Timmons Roberts , J. , Cole , J. , Corbera , E. , Ebeling , J. and Liverman , D. M. 2009 . How can the Clean Development Mechanism better contribute to sustainable development? . Ambio , 38 ( 2 ) : 120 – 122 . (doi:10.1579/0044-7447-38.2.120)
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Joint Implementation Network (JIN) . 2010 . Uncertainty remains after Copenhagen . Joint Implementation Quarterly , 15 ( 4 ) : 1 – 5 .
   Google Scholar
• Karakosta , C. , Doukas , H. and Psarras , J. 2009a . Shaping sustainable development strategies in Chile through CDM . International Journal of Climate Change Strategies and Management , 1 ( 4 ) : 382 – 399 . (doi:10.1108/17568690911002906)
   Google Scholar
• Karakosta , C. , Doukas , H. and Psarras , J. 2009b . Sustainable energy technologies in Israel under the CDM: Needs and prospects . Renewable Energy , 34 ( 5 ) : 1399 – 1406 . (doi:10.1016/j.renene.2008.10.004)
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karakosta , C. , Doukas , H. and Psarras , J. 2009c . Directing Clean Development Mechanism towards developing countries’ sustainable development priorities . Energy for Sustainable Development , 13 : 77 – 84 . (doi:10.1016/j.esd.2009.04.001)
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim , J. A. 2003 . Sustainable development and the CDM: A South African case study , Norwich : Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research . Working Paper No. 42 Retrieved from: http://tyndall.ac.uk/sites/default/files/wp42.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Lall , S. 1992 . Technological capabilities and industrialization . World Development , 20 ( 2 ) : 165 – 186 . (doi:10.1016/0305-750X(92)90097-F)
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lall , S. 1993 . Promoting technology development: The role of technology transfer and indigenous effort . Third World Quarterly , 14 ( 1 ) : 95 – 108 . (doi:10.1080/01436599308420315)
   Google Scholar
• Lecocq , F. and Ambrosi , P. 2007 . The Clean Development Mechanism: History, status, and prospects . Review of Environmental Economics and Policy , 1 ( 1 ) : 134 – 151 . (doi:10.1093/reep/rem004)
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liverman , D. M. 2009 . “ Carbon offsets, the CDM, and sustainable development ” . In Global sustainability: A Nobel cause , Edited by: Schellnhuber , H. J. , Molina , M. , Stern , N. , Huber , V. and Kadner , S. 129 – 142 . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Lütken, S. E. (2012). Penny wise, pound foolish? Is the original intention of cost efficient emissions reduction through the CDM being fulfilled? (Climate Working Paper Series, No. 1). Roskilde: UNEP Risø Centre, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark.
   Google Scholar
• Michaelowa, A. (2005a). CDM: Current status and possibilities for reform (Research Paper No. 3). Hamburg: HWWI.
   Google Scholar
• Michaelowa , A. 2005b . “ Determination of baselines and additionality for the CDM: A crucial element of credibility of the climate regime ” . In Climate change and carbon markets – A handbook of emissions reduction mechanisms , Edited by: Yamin , F. 289 – 304 . London : Earthscan .
   Google Scholar
• Michaelowa, A. (2008). Discounting of CERs to avoid CER import caps (Memo). Bundesverband Emissionshandel und Klimaschutz. Retrieved from http://www.bvek.de/downloads/Discounting%20of%20CERs-cop12-08%20bvek.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Michaelowa , A. and Michaelowa , K. 2007 . Climate or development: Is ODA diverted from its original purpose? . Climatic Change , 84 ( 1 ) : 5 – 21 . (doi:10.1007/s10584-007-9270-3)
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Michaelowa, A., & Purohit, P. (2007). Additionality determination of Indian CDM projects: Can Indian CDM project developers outwit the CDM Executive Board? (Discussion Paper CDM-1). Cambridge: Climate Strategies. Retrieved from http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/attached-files/additionality-cdm-india-cs-version9-07.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Mueller, A. (2011). Biomass CDM projects and their contribution to poverty alleviation in India (Bachelor's thesis). Department of Philosophy and Economics, University of Bayreuth.
   Google Scholar
• Muller , A. 2007 . How to make the Clean Development Mechanism sustainable – The potential of rent extraction . Energy Policy , 35 ( 6 ) : 3203 – 3212 . (doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2006.11.016)
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murdiyarso , D. , van Noordwijk , M. , Puntodewo , A. , Widayati , A. and Lusiana , B. 2008 . District scale prioritization for A/R CDM project activities in Indonesia in line with sustainable development objectives . Agriculture Ecosystems and Environment , 126 : 59 – 66 . (doi:10.1016/j.agee.2008.01.008)
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Natsource. (2007). Realizing the benefits of greenhouse gas offsets: Design options to stimulate project development and ensure environmental integrity (Memo). Natsource LLC. Retrieved from http://bipartisanpolicy.org/sites/default/files/Realizing%20the%20Benefits%20Of%20Greenhouse%20Gas%20Offsets.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Naydenova , L. and van der Gaast , W. 2011 . How to tackle the ‘Offsetting’ fever of CDM – Kill the cash cow or seek a cure? . Joint Implementation Quarterly , 17(4), 12. Retrieved from http://www.jiqweb.org/images/stories/mifiles/jiq_issues/2012jan.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Nussbaumer , P. 2009 . On the contribution of labelled certified emission reductions to sustainable development: A multi-criteria evaluation of CDM project . Energy Policy , 37 : 91 – 101 . (doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2008.07.033)
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olsen , K. H. 2007 . The Clean Development Mechanism's contribution to sustainable development: A review of the literature . Climatic Change , 84 ( 1 ) : 59 – 73 . (doi:10.1007/s10584-007-9267-y)
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olsen , K. H. and Fenhann , J. 2008 . Sustainable development benefits of Clean Development Mechanism projects. A new methodology for sustainability assessment based on text analysis of the project design documents submitted for validation . Energy Policy , 36 ( 8 ) : 2773 – 2784 . (doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2008.02.039)
   Google Scholar
• Paulsson , E. 2009 . A review of the CDM literature: From fine-tuning to critical scrutiny? . International Environmental Agreements: Politics, Law and Economics , 9 ( 1 ) : 63 – 80 . (doi:10.1007/s10784-008-9088-0)
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pueyo , V. A. 2007 . Variables underpinning technology transfers through the CDM . Joint Implementation Quarterly , 13 : 5 – 6 .
   Google Scholar
• Pulver , S. , Hultman , N. and Guimarães , L. 2010 . Carbon market participation by sugar mills in Brazil . Climate and Development , 2 ( 3 ) : 248 – 262 . (doi:10.3763/cdev.2010.0052)
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosenberg , N. and Frischtak , C. 1985 . International technology transfer: Concepts, measures, and comparisons , Edited by: Rosenberg , N. and Frischtak , C. New York : Praeger .
   Google Scholar
• Salomon , J. J. and Lebeau , A. 1993 . Mirages of development: Science and technology for the third worlds , Boulder , CO : Lynne Rienner .
   Google Scholar
• Schlup , M. 2005 . The Gold Standard: Linking the CDM to development and poverty reduction, climate or development , Hamburg : Hamburg Institute of International Economics .
   Google Scholar
• Schneider, L. (2007). Is the CDM fulfilling its environmental and sustainable development objectives? An evaluation of the CDM and options for improvement (Report prepared for WWF). Berlin: Ökoinstitut e.V.
   Google Scholar
• Schneider , M. , Holzer , A. and Hoffman , H. V. 2008 . Understanding the CDM's contribution to technology transfer . Energy Policy , 36 ( 8 ) : 2920 – 2928 . (doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2008.04.009)
   Google Scholar
• Schroeder , M. 2009 . Varieties of carbon governance: Utilizing the Clean Development Mechanism for Chinese priorities . The Journal of Environment and Development , 18 : 371 – 394 . (doi:10.1177/1070496509347083)
   Google Scholar
• Seres, S. (2007). Analysis of technology transfer in CDM projects (Prepared for the UNFCCC Registration and Issuance Unit CDM/SDM). Retrieved from http://cdm.unfccc.int/Reference/Reports/TTreport/TTrep07.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Sterk, W., Arens, C., Kreibich, N., Mersmann, F., & Wehnert, T. (2012). Sands are running out for climate protection – The Doha climate conference once again saves the UN climate process while real climate action is shelved for later. Wuppertal Institute for Climate, Environment and Energy. Retrieved from http://wupperinst.org/en/info/details/wi/a/s/ad/1979/
   Google Scholar
• Subbarao , S. and Lloyd , B. 2011 . Can the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) deliver? . Energy Policy , 39 ( 3 ) : 1600 – 1611 . (doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2010.12.036)
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sutter , C. 2003 . Sustainability check-up for CDM projects. How to assess the sustainability of international projects under the Kyoto Protocol , Berlin : Wissenschaftlicher Verlag .
   Google Scholar
• Sutter , C. and Parreño , J. 2007 . Does the current Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) deliver its sustainable development claim? An analysis of officially registered CDM projects . Climatic Change , 84 ( 1 ) : 75 – 90 . (doi:10.1007/s10584-007-9269-9)
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thorne , S. and La Rovere , E. 1999 . Criteria and indicators for appraising Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) projects , Paris : Helio International .
   Google Scholar
• UN. (1992). The United Nations framework convention on climate change. New York, NY: United Nations.
   Google Scholar
• UN. (1998). Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations framework convention on climate change. New York, NY: United Nations. Retrieved from http://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol/items/2830.php
   Google Scholar
• UNFCCC. (2008). Report of the conference of the Parties on its thirteenth session, held in Bali from 3 to 15 December 2007, Addendum: Part two: Action taken by the Conference of the Parties at its thirteenth session. Bonn: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Secretariat. Retrieved from http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2007/cop13/eng/06a01.pdf
   Google Scholar
• UNFCCC. (2010). The contribution of the Clean Development Mechanism under the Kyoto Protocol to technology transfer. Bonn: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Secretariat.
   Google Scholar
• UNFCCC. (2011). Benefits of the Clean Development Mechanism 2011. Bonn: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Secretariat.
   Google Scholar
• UNFCCC. (2012a). CDM Executive Board discussions, EB 66, 67, 68. Bonn: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Secretariat. Retrieved from http://cdm.unfccc.int/Reference/EB_Summary/index.html
   Google Scholar
• UNFCCC. (2012b). CDM Executive Board, Voluntary tool for highlighting sustainable development co-benefits of CDM project activities and programmes of activities (Draft, Cover Note, EB 68, Proposed Agenda – Annotations, Annex 22). Bonn: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Secretariat.
   Google Scholar
• UNFCCC. (2013). Report of the Conference of the Parties on its eighteenth session, held in Doha from 26 November to 8 December 2012. Addendum. Part Two: Action taken by the Conference of the Parties at its eighteenth session. Decisions adopted by the Conference of the Parties (FCCC/CP/2012/8/Add.1). Bonn: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Secretariat.
   Google Scholar
• van der Gaast , W. , Begg , K. and Flamos , A. 2009 . Promoting sustainable energy technology transfers to developing countries through the CDM . Applied Energy , 86 ( 2 ) : 230 – 236 . (doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2008.03.009)
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wara , M. 2006 . Measuring the Clean Development Mechanism's performance and potential , Stanford , CA : Stanford University .
   Google Scholar
• Wara, M. W., & Victor, D. G. (2008). A realistic policy on international carbon offsets (PESD Working Paper No. 74). Stanford, CA: Program on Energy and Sustainable Development, Stanford University. Retrieved from http://iis-db.stanford.edu/pubs/22157/WP74_final_final.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Watson, C., & Fankhauser, S. (2009). The Clean Development Mechanism: Too flexible to produce sustainable development benefits? (Working Paper No. 3). Leeds and London: Centre for Climate Change Economics and Policy, University of Leeds and London School of Economics. Retrieved from: http://www2.lse.ac.uk/GranthamInstitute/publications/WorkingPapers/Papers/WPapers%201%20-%209/WorkingPaper2.pdf
   Google Scholar
• World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) . 1987 . Our common future , Oxford : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar