References
- Åhman, M. (2006). Government policy and the development of electric vehicles in Japan. Energy Policy, 34(4), 433–443. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2004.06.011
- Åhman, M., & Nilsson, L. J. (2015). Decarbonising industry in the EU – Climate, trade and industrial policy strategies. In S. Oberthur & C. Dupont (Eds.), Decarbonisation in the European Union: Internal policies and external strategies (pp. 92–114). Palgrave Macmillan.
- Allwood, J. M., & Cullen, J. M. (2012). Sustainable materials: With both eyes open. UIT Cambridge Ltd.
- Allwood, J. M., Gutowski, T. G., Serrenho, A. C., Skelton, A. C. H., & Worrell, E. (2017). Industry 1.61803: The transition to an industry with reduced material demand fit for a low carbon future. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences, 375(2095), 20160361. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2016.0361
- Andersson, F. N. G. (2020). Effects on the manufacturing, utility and construction industries of decarbonization of the energy-intensive and natural resource-based industries. Sustainable Production and Consumption, 21, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spc.2019.10.003
- Arvizu, D., Bruckner, T., Chum, H., Edenhofer, O., Estefen, S., Faaij, A., Fischedick, M., Hansen, G., Hiriart, G., Hohmeyer, O., Hollands, K. G. T., Huckerby, J., Kadner, S., Killingtveit, Å, Kumar, A., Lewis, A., Lucon, O., Matschoss, P., Maurice, L., … Zwickel, T. (2011). Technical Summary. In O. Edenhofer, R. Pichs-Madruga, Y. Sokona, K. Seyboth, P. Matschoss, S. Kadner, & T. Zwickel (Eds.), IPCC special report on renewable energy sources and climate change mitigation (pp. 1–132). Cambridge University Press.
- Bataille, C. G. F. (2019). Physical and policy pathways to net-zero emissions industry. WIREs Climate Change, 2019, e633. https://doi.org/10.102/wcc.633
- Beise, M. (2005). Lead markets, innovation differentials and growth. International Economics and Economic Policy, 1(4), 305–328. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10368-004-0013-x
- Carbon Market Watch. (2016). Industry windfall profits from Europe’s carbon market.
- Cooper-Searle, S., Livesey, F., & Allwood, J. M. (2018). Why are material efficiency solutions a limited part of the climate policy agenda? An application of the multiple streams framework to UK policy on CO2 emissions from cars. Environmental Policy and Governance, 28(1), 51–64. https://doi.org/10.1002/eet.1782
- Daehn, K. E., Cabrera Serrenho, A., & Allwood, J. M. (2017). How will copper contamination constrain future global steel recycling? Environmental Science & Technology, 51(11), 6599–6606. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.7b00997
- EC. (2017). Making public procurement work in and for Europe (vol. 572).
- EC. (2019). The European green deal.
- EC. (2020). A new industrial strategy for Europe, COM(2020) 102 final.
- Eckersley, R. (2011). The politics of carbon leakage and the fairness of border measures. Ethics & International Affairs, 24(4), 367–393. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-7093.2010.00277.x
- EEA. (2018, December 11). EU Emissions Trading System (ETS) data viewer. https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/dashboards/emissions-trading-viewer-1
- Elkerbout, M., & Egenhofer, C. (2018). Tools to boost investment in low-carbon technologies: Five possible ways to create low-carbon markets in the EU. CEPS.
- EU. (2009). Directive 2009/125/EC of the European Parliament and the Council of 21 October 2009 establishing a framework for the setting of ecodesign requirements for energy-related products.
- Eurofer. (2013). A steel roadmap for a low carbon Europe 2050.
- Eurofer. (2019a). European steel in figures 2019.
- Eurofer. (2019b). Low carbon roadmap: Pathways to a CO2-neutral European steel industry.
- Eurofer. (2020). EU green deal on steel: EU climate leadership requires waterproof carbon leakage measures (vol. 3).
- Fleiter, T., Herbst, A., Rehfeldt, M., & Arens, M. (2019). Industrial innovation part 2: Scenario analysis and pathways to deep decarbonisation. Fraunhofer ISI.
- Green, F., & Gambhir, A. (2019). Transitional assistance policies for just, equitable and smooth low-carbon transitions: Who, what and how? Climate Policy, 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.2019.1657379
- Helm, D., & Hepburn, C. (2005). Carbon contracts and energy policy: An outline proposal. Oxford University.
- Hepburn, C. (2006). Regulation by prices, quantities, or both: A review of instrument choice. Oxford Review of Economic Policy, 22(2), 226–247. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxrep/grj014
- Hernandez, A. G., Cooper-Searle, S., Skelton, A. C. H., & Cullen, J. M. (2018). Leveraging material efficiency as an energy and climate instrument for heavy industries in the EU. Energy Policy, 120, 533–549. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2018.05.055
- Hertwich, E. G., Ali, S., Ciacci, L., Fishman, T., Heeren, N., Masanet, E., Asghari, F. N., Olivetti, E., Pauliuk, S., Tu, Q., & Wolfram, P. (2019). Material efficiency strategies to reducing greenhouse gas emissions associated with buildings, vehicles, and electronics—a review. Environmental Research Letters, 14(4), 043004. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ab0fe3
- HLG-EII. (2019). Masterplan for a competitive transformation of EU energy-intensive industries enabling a climate-neutral, circular economy by 2050.
- Hölling, M., & Gellert, S. (2018). Direct reduction: Transition from natural gas to hydrogen? [Paper presentation]. ICSTI 2018, Vienna.
- Huitema, D., Jordan, A., Massey, E., Rayner, T., van Asselt, H., Haug, C., Hildingsson, R., Monni, S., & Stripple, J. (2011). The evaluation of climate policy: Theory and emerging practice in Europe. Policy Sciences, 44(2), 179–198. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11077-011-9125-7
- IEA. (2017). Renewable energy for industry.
- IPCC. (2018). Summary for policymakers. In: Global warming of 1.5°C. An IPCC special report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change, sustainable development, and efforts to eradicate poverty.
- IRENA. (2020). Renewable power generation costs in 2019.
- IRENA, IEA & REN21. (2018). Renewable energy policies in a time of transition.
- Ismer, R., & Neuhoff, K. (2007). Border tax adjustment: A feasible way to support stringent emission trading. European Journal of Law and Economics, 24(2), 137–164. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10657-007-9032-8
- Jernkontoret. (2018). Klimatfärdplan – För en fossilfri och konkurrenskraftig stålindustri i Sverige. Stockholm, Sweden: Jernkontoret.
- Kallis, G. (2017). Radical dematerialization and degrowth. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences, 375(2095), 20160383. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2016.0383
- Kushnir, D., Hansen, T., Vogl, V., & Åhman, M. (2020). Adopting hydrogen direct reduction for the Swedish steel industry: A technological innovation system (TIS) study. Journal of Cleaner Production, 242, 118185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.118185
- Mandova, H., Patrizio, P., Leduc, S., Kjärstad, J., Wang, C., Wetterlund, E., Kraxner, F., & Gale, W. (2019). Achieving carbon-neutral iron and steelmaking in Europe through the deployment of bioenergy with carbon capture and storage. Journal of Cleaner Production, 218, 118–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclep.2019.01247 doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.01.247
- Marron, D. (2004). Greener public purchasing as an environmental policy instrument. OECD Journal on Budgeting, 3(4), 71–105. https://doi.org/10.1787/budget-v3-art23-en
- Material Economics. (2018). The circular economy: A powerful force for climate mitigation. Stockholm, Sweden: Materials Economics.
- Mickwitz, P. (2003). A framework for evaluating environmental policy instruments: Context and key concepts. Evaluation, 9(4), 415–436. https://doi.org/10.1177/135638900300900404
- Milford, R. L., Pauliuk, S., Allwood, J. M., & Muller, D. B. (2013). The roles of energy and material efficiency in meeting steel industry CO2 targets. Environmental Science & Technology, 47(7), 3455–3462. https://doi.org/10.1021/es3031424
- Mitchell, C., Bauknecht, D., & Connor, P. M. (2006). Effectiveness through risk reduction: A comparison of the renewable obligation in England and Wales and the feed-in system in Germany. Energy Policy, 34(3), 297–305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2004.08.004
- Monjon, S., & Quirion, P. (2011). Addressing leakage in the EU ETS: Border adjustment or output-based allocation? Ecological Economics, 70(11), 1957–1971. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2011.04.020
- Mowery, D., & Rosenberg, N. (1979). The influence of market demand upon innovation: A critical review of some recent empirical studies. Research Policy, 8(2), 102–153. https://doi.org/10.1016/0048-7333(79)90019-2
- Neij, L. (2008). Cost development of future technologies for power generation—A study based on experience curves and complementary bottom-up assessments. Energy Policy, 36(6), 2200–2211. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2008.02.029
- Nemet, G. F. (2009). Demand-pull, technology-push, and government-led incentives for non-incremental technical change. Research Policy, 38(5), 700–709. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.respol.2009.01.004
- Neuhoff, K., Acworth, W., Ancygier, A., Branger, F., Christmas, I., Haussner, M., Ismer, R., Rooij, A., Sartor, O., Sato, M., & Schopp, A. (2014). Carbon control and competitiveness post 2020: The steel report. London , UK: Climate Strategies.
- Neuhoff, K., Chiappinelli, O., Bataille, C., Haußner, M., Ismer, R., Joltreau, E., Jürgens, I., Piantieri, C., Richstein, J., Sartor, O., Singhal, P., & Stede, J. (2018). Filling gaps in the policy package to decarbonise production and use of materials. UK, London: Climate Strategies.
- Neuhoff, K., Chiappinelli, O., Gerres, T., Haussner, M., Ismer, R., May, N., Pirlot, A., & Richstein, J. (2019). Building blocks for a climate-neutral European industrial sector. UK, London: Climate Strategies.
- Okereke, C., & McDaniels, D. (2012). To what extent are EU steel companies susceptible to competitive loss due to climate policy? Energy Policy, 46, 203–215. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2012.03.052
- Pauliuk, S., Milford, R. L., Muller, D. B., & Allwood, J. M. (2013). The steel scrap age. Environmental Science & Technology, 47(7), 3448–3454. https://doi.org/10.1021/es303149z
- Pauliuk, S., Wang, T., & Müller, D. B. (2013). Steel all over the world: Estimating in-use stocks of iron for 200 countries. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 71, 22–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2012.11.008
- Pollitt, H., Neuhoff, K., & Lin, X. (2019). The impact of implementing a consumption charge on carbon-intensive materials in Europe. Climate Policy, 20, 74–89. https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.1605969 doi: 10.1080/14693062.2019.1605969
- Quitzow, R., Walz, R., Köhler, J., & Rennings, K. (2014). The concept of “lead markets” revisited: Contribution to environmental innovation theory. Environmental Innovation and Societal Transitions, 10, 4–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eist.2013.11.002
- Richards, J.-A., Röhrig, K., & McLynn, M. (2018). European fat cats EU energy intensive industries: Paid to pollute, not to decarbonise. CAN Europe.
- Richstein, J. C. (2017). Project-based carbon contracts: A way to finance innovative low-carbon investments. DIW.
- Rootzén, J., & Johnsson, F. (2016). Paying the full price of steel – Perspectives on the cost of reducing carbon dioxide emissions from the steel industry. Energy Policy, 98, 459–469. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2016.09.021
- Sandbag. (2018). EU ETS dashboard (2018 ed.). Retrieved February 20, 2019, from http://sandbag-climate.github.io/
- Sandén, B. A., & Azar, C. (2005). Near-term technology policies for long-term climate targets—Economy wide versus technology specific approaches. Energy Policy, 33(12), 1557–1576. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2004.01.012
- Sartor, O., & Bataille, C. (2019). Decarbonising basic materials in Europe: How carbon contracts-for-difference could help bring breakthrough technologies to market. IDDRI.
- Sekiguchi, N. (2017). Trade specialisation patterns in major steelmaking economies: The role of advanced economies and the implications for rapid growth in emerging market and developing economies in the global steel market. Mineral Economics, 30(3), 207–227. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13563-017-0110-2
- Smith, A., & Raven, R. (2012). What is protective space? Reconsidering niches in transitions to sustainability. Research Policy, 41(6), 1025–1036. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.respol.2011.12.012
- Söderholm, P., & Tilton, J. E. (2012). Material efficiency: An economic perspective. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 61, 75–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2012.01.003
- Somanathan, E., Sterner, T., Sugiyama, T., Chimanikire, D., Dubash, N. K., Essandoh-Yeddu, J., Fifita, S., Goulder, L., Jaffe, A., Labandeira, X., Managi, S., Mitchell, C., Montero, J. P., Teng, F., & Zylicz, T. (2014). National and sub-national policies and institutions. In O. Edenhofer, R. Pichs-Madruga, Y. Sokona, E. Farahani, S. Kadner, K. Seyboth, A. Adler, I. Baum, S. Brunner, P. Eickemeier, B. Kriemann, J. Savolainen, S. Schlömer, C. von Stechow, T. Zwickel, & J. C. Minx (Eds.), Climate change 2014: Mitigation of climate change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press.
- Toller, S., & Larsson, M. (2017). Implementation of life cycle thinking in planning and procurement at the Swedish transport administration. In Pavement life-cycle assessment – Proceedings of the pavement life-cycle assessment symposium, 2017 (pp. 281–287).
- UK BEIS. (2019). Steel public procurement – Compliance with the steel procurement guidance (PPN 11/16).
- Unruh, G. C. (2000). Understanding carbon lock-in. Energy Policy, 28(12), 817–830. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0301-4215(00)00070-7
- Unruh, G. C. (2002). Escaping carbon lock-in. Energy Policy, 30(4), 317–325. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0301-4215(01)00098-2
- van Ruijven, B. J., van Vuuren, D. P., Boskaljon, W., Neelis, M. L., Saygin, D., & Patel, M. K. (2016). Long-term model-based projections of energy use and CO2 emissions from the global steel and cement industries. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 112, 15–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2016.04.016
- Vedung, E. (1997). Models of evaluation. In Public policy and program evaluation (pp. 35–92). Transaction Publishers.
- Vogl, V., & Åhman, M. (2019). What is green steel? – Towards a strategic decision tool for decarbonising EU steel [Paper presentation]. METEC-ESTAD 2019, Düsseldorf, Germany.
- Vogl, V., Åhman, M., & Nilsson, L. J. (2018). Assessment of hydrogen direct reduction for fossil-free steelmaking. Journal of Cleaner Production, 203, 736–745. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.08.279
- Wilson, C., & Grubler, A. (2011). Lessons from the history of technological change for clean energy scenarios and policies. Natural Resources Forum, 35(3), 165–184. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1477-8947.2011.01386.x
- World Steel Association. (2009). Statistical yearbook 2009.
- World Steel Association. (2019). Steel statistical yearbook 2018.
- Wyns, T., Khandekar, G., Axelson, M., Sartor, O., & Neuhoff, K. (2019). Industrial transformation 2050: Towards an industrial strategy for a climate neutral Europe. European Climate Foundation.
- Xylia, M., Silveira, S., Duerinck, J., & Meinke-Hubeny, F. (2018). Weighing regional scrap availability in global pathways for steel production processes. Energy Efficiency, 11(5), 1135–1159. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12053-017-9583-7