Accountability and police use of force: Interactive effects between minority representation and civilian review boards

References

• Ali, M. U., and M. Pirog. 2019. “Social Accountability and Institutional Change: The Case of Citizen Oversight of Police.” Public Administration Review 79 (3): 411–426. doi:10.1111/puar.13055.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ali, M. U., and S. Nicholson-Crotty. 2020. “Examining the Accountability-Performance Link: The Case of Citizen Oversight of Police.” Public Performance & Management Review 1–37. doi:10.1080/15309576.2020.1806086.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alpert, G. P., R. G. Dunham, and M. MacDonald John. 2004. “Interactive Police-Citizen Encounters that Result in Force.” Police Quarterly 7 (4): 475–488. doi:10.1177/1098611103260507.
   Google Scholar
• Andrews, R., S. Groeneveld, K. J. Meier, and E. Schröter., & Schröter, E. (2016). “Representative Bureaucracy and Public Service Performance: Where, Why and How Does Representativeness Work?” Presented at the PMRA Public Management Research Conference, Aarhus University, Denmark, June 22.
   Google Scholar
• Ba, B., D. Knox, J. Mummolo, and R. Rivera. 2021. “The Role of Officer Race and Gender in Police-civilian Interactions in Chicago.” Science 317 (6530): 696–702. doi:10.1126/science.abd8694.
   Google Scholar
• Barrick, K., M. J. Hickman, and K. J. Strom. 2014. “Representative Policing and Violence Towards the Police.” Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice 8 (2): 193–204. doi:10.1093/police/pau013.
   Google Scholar
• Bishu, S. G., and A. R. Kennedy. 2020. Trends and gaps: A meta-review of representative bureaucracy. Review of Public Personnel Administration, 40 (4): 559–588.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bolton, K., and J. Feagin. 2004. Black in Blue: African-American Police Officers and Racism. Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxfordshire: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Brereton, D. 2000. “Evaluating the Performance of External Oversight Bodies.” In Civilian Oversight of Policing: Governance, Democracy and Human Rights, edited by A. Goldsmith and C. Lewis, 156–183. Sydney: Hart Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Brown, R. A., and J. Frank. 2006. “Race and Officer Decision Making: Examining Differences in Arrest Outcomes between Black and White Officers.” Justice Quarterly 23 (1): 96–126. doi:10.1080/07418820600552527.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Browning, R. P., D. R. Marshall, and D. H. Tabb. 1984. Protest Is Not Enough. Berkeley: University of California Press.
   Google Scholar
• Brunson, R. K. 2007. “Police Don’t like Black People”: African-American Young Men’s Accumulated Police Experiences. Criminology & Public Policy 6 (1): 71–101. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9133.2007.00423.x.
   Google Scholar
• Brunson, R. K., and J. M. Gau. 2015. “Officer Race versus Macro-level Context: A Test of Competing Hypotheses about Black Citizens’ Experiences with and Perceptions of Black Police Officers.” Crime and Delinquency 61 (2): 213–242. doi:10.1177/0011128711398027.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bullock, K., J. Fielding, N. Fielding, and A. Lloyd. 2017. “The Police Service, Diversity, and Organizational Outcomes: A Report of a Systematic Review.” What Works: Crime Reduction Systematic Review Series. https://whatworks.college.police.uk/Research/Systematic_Review_Series/Pages/Diversity.aspx
   Google Scholar
• Cao, L., X. Deng, and S. Barton. 2000. “A Test of Lundman’s Organizational Product Thesis with Data on Citizen Complaints.” Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies and Management 23 (3): 356–373. doi:10.1108/13639510010343038.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chappell, A. T., J. M. MacDonald, and P. W. Manz. 2006. “The Organizational Determinants of Police Arrest Decisions.” Crime and Delinquency 52 (2): 287–306. doi:10.1177/0011128705278329.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Angelis, J., R. S. Rosenthal, and B. Buchner. 2016. Civilian Oversight of Law Enforcement: Assessing the Evidence. Washington, DC: OJP Diagnostic Center.
   Google Scholar
• Donohue, J. J., III, and S. D. Levitt. 2001. “The Impact of Race on Policing and Arrests.” The Journal of Law & Economics 44 (2): 367–394. doi:10.1086/322810.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Epp, C. R., S. Maynard‐Moody, and D. Haider‐Markel. 2017. “Beyond Profiling: The Institutional Sources of Racial Disparities in Policing.” Public Administration Review 77 (2): 168–178. doi:10.1111/puar.12702.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Finer, H. 1941. “Administrative Responsibility in Democratic Governance.” Public Administration Review 1 (4): 335–350. doi:10.2307/972907.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Finn, P. 2001. Citizen Review of Police: Approaches and Implementation. Washington, DC: US Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, National Institute of Justice.
   Google Scholar
• Friedrich, C. J. 1940. “Public Policy and the Nature of Administrative Responsibility.” In Public Policy: A Yearbook of the Graduate, edited by C. J. Friedrich and E. Mason, 3–24. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Fryer, R. G., Jr. 2016. “An Empirical Analysis of Racial Differences in Police Use of Force.” NBER Working Paper Series, Working Paper 22399. http://www.nber.org/papers/w22399
   Google Scholar
• Garner, J. H., C. D. Maxwell, and C. G. Heraux. 2002. “Characteristics Associated with the Prevalence and Severity of Force Used by the Police.” Justice Quarterly 19 (4): 705–746. doi:10.1080/07418820200095401.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gauld, R. 2016. “Principal-Agent Theory of Organizations.” In Global Encyclopedia of Public Administration, Public Policy, and Governance, edited by A. Farazmand. Cham: Springer. https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-3-319-20928-9_72#howtocite
   Google Scholar
• Gilliard-Matthews, S., B. R. Kowalski, and R. J. Lundman. 2008. “Office Race and Citizen-reported Traffic Ticket Decisions by Police in 1999 and 2002.” Police Quarterly 11 (2): 202–219. doi:10.1177/1098611107309657.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goel, S., J. M. Rao, and R. Shroff. 2016. “Precinct or Prejudice? Understanding Racial Disparities in New York City’s Stop-and-frisk Policy.” The Annals of Applied Statistics 10 (1): 365–394. doi:10.1214/15-AOAS897.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Groeneveld, S., and S. Van de Walle. 2010. “A Contingency Approach to Representative Bureaucracy: Power, Equal Opportunities and Diversity.” International Review of Administrative Sciences 76 (2): 239–258. doi:10.1177/0020852309365670.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gustafson, J. L. 2010. “Diversity in Municipal Police Agencies: A National Examination of Its Determinants and Effects.” Doctoral dissertation, Northeastern University Digital Repository Service. https://repository.library.northeastern.edu/files/neu:1018/fulltext.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Harris, F. 2012. “Holding Police Accountability Theory to Account.” Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice 6 (3): 240–249. doi:10.1093/police/pas003.
   Google Scholar
• Headley, A. M. 2020. “Race, Ethnicity and Social Equity in Policing.” In Social Equity: New Dimensions and Challenges, edited by M. E. Guy and S. McCandless. Irvine, CA: Melvin & Leigh Publ.
   Google Scholar
• Headley, A. M., and J. E. Wright. 2019. “National Police Reform Commissions: Evidence-Based Practices or Unfulfilled Promises?” The Review of Black Political Economy 46 (4): 277–305. doi:10.1177/0034644619873074.
   Google Scholar
• Headley, A. M., J. E. Wright, and K. J. Meier. 2021. “Bureaucracy, Democracy and Race: The Limits of Symbolic Representation.” Public Administration Review. doi:10.1111/puar.13358.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hickman, M., and A. Piquero. 2009. “Organizational, Administrative, and Environmental Correlates of Complaints about Police Use of Force: Does Minority Representation Matter?” Crime and Delinquency 55 (1): 3–27. doi:10.1177/0011128708316977.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hong, S. 2016. “Representative Bureaucracy, Organizational Integrity, and Citizen Coproduction: Does an Increase in Police Ethnic Representativeness Reduce Crime?” Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 35 (1): 11–33. doi:10.1002/pam.21876.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hong, S. 2017. “Does Increasing Ethnic Representativeness Reduce Police Misconduct? Evidence from Police Reform in England and Wales.” Public Administration Review 77 (2): 195–205. doi:10.1111/puar.12629.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hong, S. 2019. “JPART Virtual Issue on Policing and Public Administration Research.” Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory. https://academic.oup.com/jpart/pages/policing_vi
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hong, S. 2020. “Representative Bureaucracy and Hierarchy: Interactions among Leadership, Middle-level, and Street-level Bureaucracy.” Public Management Review. doi:10.1080/14719037.2020.1743346.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hopkins, D. J., and K. T. McCabe. 2012. “After It’s Too Late: Estimating the Policy Impacts of Black Mayoralties in US Cities.” American Politics Research 40 (4): 665–700. doi:10.1177/1532673X11432469.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ingram, J. R., and W. Terrill. 2014. “Relational Demography and Officer Occupational Attitudes: The Influence of Workgroup Context.” Journal of Criminal Justice 42: 309–320. doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2014.04.001.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacobs, D., and J. T. Carmichael. 2002. “Subordination and Violence against State Control Agents: Testing Political Explanations for Lethal Assaults against the Police.” Social Forces 80 (4): 1223–1251. doi:10.1353/sof.2002.0027.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacobs, D., and R. M. O’Brien. 1998. “The Determinants of Deadly Force: A Structural Analysis of Police Violence.” American Journal of Sociology 103: 837–862. doi:10.1086/231291.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jakobsen, M., O. James, D. Moynihan, and T. Nabatchi. 2016. “JPART Virtual Issue on Citizen-state Interactions in Public Administration Research.” Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory 29 (4), e8–e15. https://academic.oup.com/jpart/article-abstract/29/4/e8/2629269
   Google Scholar
• Kaminski, R. J., and T. D. Stucky. 2009. “Reassessing Political Explanations for Murders of Police.” Homicide Studies 13 (1): 3–20. doi:10.1177/1088767908326678.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keiser, L. R. 2010. “Representative Bureaucracy.” In The Oxford Handbook of American Bureaucracy. https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199238958.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199238958-e-30
   Google Scholar
• Keiser, L. R., V. M. Wilkins, K. J. Meier, and C. A. Holland. 2002. “Lipstick and Logarithms: Gender, Institutional Context, and Representative Bureaucracy.” American Political Science Review 96 (3): 553–564. doi:10.1017/S0003055402000321.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kennedy, B. 2014. “Unraveling Representative Bureaucracy: A Systematic Analysis of the Literature.” Administration & Society 46 (4): 395–421. doi:10.1177/0095399712459724.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kent, S. L. 2010. “Killings of Police in U.S. Cities since 1980: An Examination of Environmental and Political Explanations.” Homicide Studies 14 (1): 3–23. doi:10.1177/1088767909353258.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kerr, B., and K. R. Mladenka. 1994. “Does Politics Matter? A Time Series Analysis of Minority Employment Patterns.” American Journal of Political Science 38 (4): 918–943. doi:10.2307/2111727.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lasley, J. R., J. Larson, C. Kelso, and G. C. Brown. 2011. “Assessing the Long-term Effects of Officer Race on Police Attitudes Towards the Community: A Case for Representative Bureaucracy Theory.” Police Practice and Research 12 (6): 474–491. doi:10.1080/15614263.2011.589567.
   Google Scholar
• Lim, H. H. 2006. “Representative Bureaucracy: Rethinking Substantive Effects and Active Representation.” Public Administration Review 66 (2): 193–204. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6210.2006.00572.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lumley, T., P. Diehr, S. Emerson, and L. Chen. 2002. “The Importance of the Normality Assumption in Large Public Health Data Sets.” Annual Review of Public Health 23 (1): 151–169. doi:10.1146/annurev.publhealth.23.100901.140546.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacDonald, J. M. 2002. “The Effectiveness of Community Policing in Reducing Urban Violence.” Crime and Delinquency 48 (4): 592–618. doi:10.1177/001112802237131.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marvel, J. D., and W. G. Resh. 2015. “Bureaucratic Discretion, Client Demographics, and Representative Bureaucracy.” The American Review of Public Administration 45 (3): 281–310. doi:10.1177/0275074013492008.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meier, K. J. 2019. “Theoretical Frontiers in Representative Bureaucracy: New Directions for Research.” Perspectives on Public Management and Governance 2 (1): 39–56. doi:10.1093/ppmgov/gvy004.
   Google Scholar
• Meier, K. J., and J. Bohte. 2001. “Structure and Discretion: Missing Links in Representative Bureaucracy.” Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory 11 (4): 455–470. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.jpart.a003511.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meier, K. J., M. S. Pennington, and W. S. Eller. 2005. “Race, Sex, and Clarence Thomas: Representation Change in the EEOC.” Public Administration Review 65 (2): 171–179. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6210.2005.00442.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meier, K. J., and T. S. Morton. 2015. “Representative Bureaucracy in a Cross-national Context: Politics, Identity, Structure and Discretion.” In Politics of Representative Bureaucracy. Edward Elgar Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Morin, R., K. Parker, R. Stepler, and A. Mercer. 2017. “Behind the Badge: Police and the Community.” Pew Research Center. https://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2017/01/11/police-and-the-community/
   Google Scholar
• Moskos, P. C. 2008. “Two Shades of Blue: Black and White in the Blue Brotherhood.” Law Enforcement Executive Forum 8: 5.
   Google Scholar
• Nicholson‐Crotty, S., J. Nicholson‐Crotty, and S. Fernandez. 2017. “Will More Black Cops Matter? Officer Race and Police‐involved Homicides of Black Citizens.” Public Administration Review 77 (2): 206–216. doi:10.1111/puar.12734.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ofer, U. 2015. “Getting It Right: Building Effective Civilian Review Boards to Oversee Police.” Seton Hall Law Review 46: 1033.
   Google Scholar
• Ozkan, T., J. L. Worrall, and A. R. Piquero. 2016. “Does Minority Representation in Police Agencies Reduce Assaults on the Police?” American Journal of Criminal Justice 41 (3): 402–423. doi:10.1007/s12103-016-9338-6.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paoline, E. A., S. M. Myers, and R. E. Worden. 2000. “Police Culture, Individualism, and Community Policing: Evidence from Two Police Departments.” Justice Quarterly 17: 575–605. doi:10.1080/07418820000094671.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pitts, D. W. (2005). “Diversity, representation, and performance: Evidence about race and ethnicity in public organizations.” Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory 15 (4): 615–631.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riccucci, N. M., and G. G. Van Ryzin. 2017. “Representative Bureaucracy: A Lever to Enhance Social Equity, Coproduction, and Democracy.” Public Administration Review 77 (1): 21–30. doi:10.1111/puar.12649.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riccucci, N. M., G. G. Van Ryzin, and K. Jackson. 2018. “Representative Bureaucracy, Race, and Policing: A Survey Experiment.” Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory 28 (4): 506–518. doi:10.1093/jopart/muy023.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riccucci, N. M., and M. K. Meyers. 2004. “Linking Passive and Active Representation: The Case of Frontline Workers in Welfare Agencies.” Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory 14 (4): 585–597. doi:10.1093/jopart/muh038.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roch, C. H., D. W. Pitts, and I. Navarro. 2010. “Representative Bureaucracy and Policy Tools: Ethnicity, Student Discipline, and Representation in Public Schools.” Administration & Society: 42 (1): 38–65.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ross, C. T. 2015. “Multi-level Bayesian Analysis of Racial Bias in Police Shootings at the County-level in the United States, 2011–2014.” PLoS ONE 10 (11): e0141854. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0141854.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saltzstein, G. H. 1989. “Black Mayors and Police Policies.” The Journal of Politics 51 (3): 525–544. doi:10.2307/2131494.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sharp, E. B. 2014. “Minority Representation and Order Maintenance Policing: Toward a Contingent View.” Social Science Quarterly 95 (4): 1155–1171.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shjarback, J. A., and M. D. White. 2016. “Departmental Professionalism and Its Impact on Indicators of Violence in Police Citizen Encounters.” Police Quarterly 19 (1): 32–62. doi:10.1177/1098611115604449.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silver, J. R., S. P. Roche, T. J. Bilach, and S. Bontrager Ryon. 2017. “Traditional Police Culture, Use of Force, and Procedural Justice: Investigating Individual, Organizational, and Contextual Factors.” Justice Quarterly 34 (7): 1272–1309. doi:10.1080/07418825.2017.1381756.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sklansky, D. A. 2005. “Not Your Father’s Police Department: Making Sense of the New Demographics of Law Enforcement.” The Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology 96: 1209.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, B. W., and M. D. Holmes. 2003. “Community Accountability, Minority Threat, and Police Brutality: An Examination of Civil Rights Criminal Complaints.” Criminology 41 (4): 1035–1064. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2003.tb01013.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, B. W., and M. D. Holmes. 2014. “Police Use of Excessive Force in Minority Communities: A Test of the Minority Threat, Place and Community Accountability Hypotheses.” Social Problems 61 (1): 83–104.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sowa, J. E., and S. C. Selden. 2003. “Administrative Discretion and Active Representation: An Expansion of the Theory of Representative Bureaucracy.” Public Administration Review 63 (6): 700–710. doi:10.1111/1540-6210.00333.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stephens, D. W., E. Scrivner, and J. F. Cambareri. 2018. Civilian Oversight of Police in Major Cities. Washington, DC: Office of Community Oriented Policing Services.
   Google Scholar
• Stucky, T. D. 2012. “The Conditional Effects of Race and Politics on Social Control: Black Violent Crime Arrests in Large Cities, 1970–1990.” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 49 (1): 3–30. doi:10.1177/0022427810393020.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sun, I. Y. 2003. “Police Officers’ Attitudes toward Their Role and Work: A Comparison of Black and White Officers.” American Journal of Criminal Justice 28 (1): 89–108. doi:10.1007/BF02885754.
   Google Scholar
• Terrill, W., E. A. Paoline III, and P. K. Manning. 2003. “Police Culture and Coercion.” Criminology 41 (4): 1003–1034. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2003.tb01012.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Terrill, W., F. H. Leinfelt, and D.-H. Kwak. 2008. “Examining Police Use of Force: A Smaller Agency Perspective.” Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management 31 (1): 57–76. doi:10.1108/13639510810852576.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Terrill, W., and J. R. Ingram. 2016. “Citizen Complaints against the Police: An Eight City Examination.” Police Quarterly 19 (2): 150–179. doi:10.1177/1098611115613320.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Theobald, N. A., and D. P. Haider-Markel. 2009. “Race, Bureaucracy, and Symbolic Representation: Interactions between Citizens and Police.” Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory 19 (2): 409–426. doi:10.1093/jopart/mun006.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Trochmann, M. B., and A. Gover. 2016. “Measuring the Impact of Police Representativeness on Communities.” Policing: An International Journal 39 (4): 773–790. doi:10.1108/PIJPSM-02-2016-0026.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walker, S., and E. Luna. 2000. “Institutional Structure Vs. Political Will: Albuquerque as a Case Study in the Effectiveness of the Civilian Oversight of the Police.” In Civilian Oversight of Policing: Governance, Democracy, and Human Rights, edited by A. Goldsmith and C. Lewis, 83–104. Sydney: Hart Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Walker, S. 2001. Police Accountability: The Role of Citizen Oversight. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Walker, S. 2006. “The History of the Citizen Oversight.” In Citizen Oversight of Law Enforcement, edited by J. C. Perino, 1–10. Washington, DC: American Bar Association.
   Google Scholar
• Walker, S., and V. W. Bumphus. 1992. “The Effectiveness of Civilian Review: Observations on Recent Trends and New Issues regarding the Civilian Review of the Police.” American Journal of Police 11: 1–26.
   Google Scholar
• Warren, P., D. Tomaskovic‐Devey, W. Smith, M. Zingraff, and M. Mason. 2006. “Driving while Black: Bias Processes and Racial Disparity in Police Stops.” Criminology 44 (3): 709–738. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2006.00061.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• White, M. D., V. Mora, and C. Orosco. 2019. “Exploring Variation in Police Perceptions of De-Escalation: Do Officer Characteristics Matter?” Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice. doi:10.1093/police/paz062.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilkins, V. M., and B. N. Williams. 2008. “Black or Blue: Racial Profiling and Representative Bureaucracy.” Public Administration Review 68 (4): 654–664. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6210.2008.00905.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilkins, V. M., and B. N. Williams. 2009. “Representing Blue: Representative Bureaucracy and Racial Profiling in the Latino Community.” Administration & Society 40 (8): 775–798. doi:10.1177/0095399708326332.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Willits, D. W. 2014. “The Organizational Structure of Police Departments and Assaults on Police Officers.” International Journal of Police Science & Management 16 (2): 140–154. doi:10.1350/ijps.2014.16.2.334.
   Google Scholar
• Willits, D. W., and J. S. Nowacki. 2014. “Police Organisation and Deadly Force: An Examination of Variation across Large and Small Cities.” Policing and Society 24 (1): 63–80. doi:10.1080/10439463.2013.784314.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilson, S., and J. Zhao. 2008. “Determining the Correlates of Police Victimization: An Analysis of Organizational Level Factors on Injurious Assaults.” Journal of Criminal Justice 36 (5): 461–468. doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2008.07.009.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Worden, R. E. 2004. Citizen Oversight of the Ashton Police: Perceptions of Police Clients and Complainants, 2003. [Report]. Albany, NY: John J. Finn Institute for Public Safety.
   Google Scholar