GPER-1/GPR30 a novel estrogen receptor sited in the cell membrane: therapeutic coupling to breast cancer

References

• Rosselli M, Dubey RK. Estrogen metabolism and reproduction - is there a relationship? J Fertilität Reproduktion. 2006;16:19–23.
   Google Scholar
• Yaghjyan L, Graham AC. Estrogens in the breast tissue: a systematic review. Cancer Causes Control. 2011;22:529–540.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Auger AP, Tetel MJ, McCarthy MM. Steroid receptor coactivator-1 (SRC-1) mediates the development of sex-specific brain morphology and behavior. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2000;97:7551–7555.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jensen EV, Jacobson HI, Walf A, et al. Estrogen action: a historic perspective on the implications of considering. Physiol Behav. 2010;99:151–162.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beatson GT. On the treatment of inoperable cases of carcinoma of the mamma: suggestions for a new method of treatment with illustrative cases. Lancet. 1896;148:104.
   Google Scholar
• Butenandt A. Über “Progynon“ ein krystallisiertes weibliches sexualhormon. Naturwissenschaften. 1929;17:879.
   Google Scholar
• Musgrove EA, Sutherland RL. Biological determinants of endocrine resistance in breast cancer. Nat Rev Cancer. 2009;9:631–643.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Higa GM, Fell RG. Sex hormone receptor repertoire in breast cancer. Int J Breast Cancer. 2013;2013:284036.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chuffa LG, Lupi-Júnior LA, Costa AB, et al. The role of sex hormones and steroid receptors on female reproductive cancers. Steroids. 2017;118:93–108.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jensen EV, Suzuki T, Kawashima T, et al. A two-step mechanism for the interaction of estradiol with rat uterus. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1968;59:632–638.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cintra A, Fuxe K, Härfstrand A, et al. Rapid important paper on the cellular localization and distribution of estrogen receptors in the rat tel- and diencephalon using monoclonal antibodies to human estrogen receptor. Neurochem Int. 1986;8:587–595.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuiper GG, Enmark E, Pelto-Huikko M, et al. Cloning of novel receptor expressed in rat prostate and ovary. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1996;93:5925–5930.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang J, Li G, Li Z, et al. Estrogen independent effects of ERα36 in ER-negative breast cancer. Steroids. 2012;77:666–673.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dahlman-Wright K, Cavailles V, Fuqua SA, et al. International Union of Pharmacology. LXIV Estrogen Receptors Pharmacol Rev. 2006;58:773–781.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haldosen LA, Zhao C, Dahlman-Wright K. Estrogen receptor beta in breast cancer. Mol Cell Endocrinol. 2014;382:665–672.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhao C, Matthews J, Tujague M, et al. Estrogen receptor beta 2 negatively regulates the transactivation of estrogen receptor α in human breast cancer cells. Cancer Res. 2007;67:3955–3962.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu J, Guo H, Mao K, et al. Impact of estrogen receptor-β expression on breast cancer prognosis: a meta-analysis. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 2016;156:149–162.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Secreto FJ, Monroe DG, Dutta S, et al. Estrogen receptor alpha/beta isoforms, but not betacx, modulate unique patterns of gene expression and cell proliferation in Hs578T cells. J Cell Biochem. 2007;101:1125–1147.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Szego CM, Davis JS. Adenosine 3ʹ,5ʹ-monophosphate in rat uterus: acute elevation by estrogen. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1967;58:1711–1718.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Merlin JL, Harlé A, Lion M, et al. Expression and activation of p38 MAP kinase in invasive ductal breast cancers: correlation with expression of the estrogen receptor, HER2 and downstream signaling phosphorylated proteins. Oncol Rep. 2013;30:1943–1948.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Molina L, Matus CE, Astroza A, et al. Stimulation of the bradykinin B1 receptor induces the proliferation of estrogen-sensitive breast cancer cells and activates the ERK1/2 signaling pathway. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 2009;118:499–510.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Santen RJ, Song RX, Masamura S, et al. Adaptation to estradiol deprivation causes up-regulation of growth factor pathways and hypersensitivity to estradiol in breast cancer cell. Adv Exp Med Biol. 2008;630:19–34.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xt Z, Lg K, Ding L, et al. A positive feedback loop of ER-alpha36/EGFR promotes malignant growth of ER-negative breast cancer cells. Oncogene. 2011;30:770–780.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Filardo EJ, Quinn JA, Bland KI, et al. Estrogen-induced activation of Erk-1 and Erk-2 requires the G protein-coupled receptor homolog, GPR30, and occurs via trans-activation of the epidermal growth factor receptor through release of HB-EGF. Mol Endocrinol. 2000;14:1649–1660.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Filardo EJ, Quinn JA, Frackelton AR Jr, et al. Estrogen action via the G protein-coupled receptor, GPR30: stimulation of adenylyl cyclase and cAMP-mediated attenuation of the epidermal growth factor receptorto-MAPK signaling axis. Mol Endocrinol. 2002;16:70–84.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vladusic EA, Hornby AE, Guerra-Vladusic FK, et al. Expression and regulation of estrogen receptor beta in human breast tumors and cell lines. Oncol Rep. 2000;7:157–167.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Revankar CM, Cimino DF, Sklar LA, et al. A transmembrane intracellular estrogen receptor mediates rapid cell signaling. Science. 2005;307:1625–1630.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ahola TM, Purmonen S, Pennanen P, et al. Progestin upregulates G-protein-coupled receptor 30 in breast cancer cells. Eur J Biochem. 2002;269:2485–2490.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Albanito L, Sisci D, Aquila S, et al. Epidermal growth factor induces G protein-coupled receptor 30 expression in estrogen receptor-negative breast cancer cells. Endocrinology. 2008;149:3799–3808.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prossnitz ER, Barton M. The G protein-coupled estrogen receptor GPER in health and disease. Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2011;7:715–726.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prossnitz ER, Barton M. Estrogen biology: new insights into GPER function and clinical opportunities. Mol Cell Endocrinol. 2014;389:71–83.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barton M, Prossnitz ER. Emerging roles of GPER in diabetes and atherosclerosis. Trends Endocrinol Metab. 2015;26:185–192.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martensson UE, Salehi SA, Windahl S, et al. Deletion of the G protein-coupled receptor 30 impairs glucose tolerance, reduces bone growth, increases blood pressure, and eliminates estradiol-stimulated insulin release in female mice. Endocrinology. 2009;150:687–698.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Delbeck M, Golz S, Vonk R, et al. Impaired left-ventricular cardiac function in male GPR30-deficient mice. Mol Med Rep. 2011;4:37–40.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Noel SD, Keen KL, Baumann DI, et al. Involvement of G protein-coupled receptor 30 (GPR30) in rapid action of estrogen in primate LHRH neurons. Mol Endocrinol. 2009;23:349–359.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dennis MK, Burai R, Ramesh C, et al. In vivo effects of a GPR30 antagonist. Nat Chem Biol. 2009;5:421–427.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barton M. Not lost in translation: emerging clinical importance of the G protein-coupled estrogen receptor GPER. Steroids. 2016;111:37–45.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haas E, Bhattacharya I, Brailoiu E, et al. Regulatory role of G protein-coupled estrogen receptor for vascular function and obesity. Circ Res. 2009;104:288–291.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Takahashi K, Ohmichi M, Yoshida M, et al. Both estrogen and raloxifene cause G1 arrest of vascular smooth muscle cells. J Endocrinol. 2003;178:319–329.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Henic E, Noskova V, Høyer-Hansen G, et al. Estradiol 22 attenuates EGF-induced rapid uPAR mobilization and cell migration via the G- 23 protein-coupled receptor 30 in ovarian cancer cells. Int J Gynecol Cancer. 2009;19:214–222.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sharma G, Hu C, Brigman JL, et al. GPER deficiency in male mice results in insulin resistance, dyslipidemia, and a proinflammatory state. Endocrinology. 2013;154:4136–4145.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wei W, Chen ZJ, Zhang KS, et al. The activation of G protein-coupled receptor 30 (GPR30) inhibits proliferation of estrogen receptor-negative breast cancer cells in vitro and in vivo. Cell Death Dis. 2014;5:e1428.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Girgert R, Emons G, Gründker C. 17β-estradiol-induced growth of triple-negative breast cancer cells is prevented by the reduction of GPER expression after treatment with gefitinib. Oncol Rep. 2017;37:1212–1218.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marjon NA, Hu C, Hathaway HJ, et al. G protein-coupled estrogen receptor (GPER) regulates mammary tumorigenesis and metastasis. Mol Cancer Res. 2014;12:1644–1654.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ignatov A, Ignatov T, Weissenborn C, et al. G-protein-coupled estrogen receptor GPR30 and tamoxifen resistance in breast cancer. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 2011;128:457–466.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pisano A, Santolla MF, De Francesco EM, et al. GPER, IGF-IR, and EGFR transduction signaling are involved in stimulatory effects of zinc in breast cancer cells and cancer-associated fibroblasts. Mol Carcinog. 2017;56:580–593.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith HO, Arias-Pulido H, Kuo DY, et al. GPR30 predicts poor survival for ovarian cancer. Gynecol Oncol. 2009;114:465–471.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dennis MK, Field AS, Burai R, et al. Identification of a GPER/GPR30 antagonist with improved estrogen receptor counterselectivity. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 2011;127:358–366.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lappano R, Rosano C, De Marco P, et al. Estriolacts as a GPR30 antagonist in estrogen receptor-negative breast cancer cells. Mol Cell Endocrinol. 2010;320:162–170.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prossnitz ER, Sklar LA, Oprea TI, et al. GPR30: a novel therapeutic target in estrogen-related disease. Trends Pharmacol Sci. 2008;29:116–123.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ma L, Lan F, Zheng Z, et al. Epidermal growth factor (EGF) and interleukin (IL)-1β synergistically promote ERK1/2-mediated invasive breast ductal cancer cell migration and invasion. Mol Cancer. 2012;11:79.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Filardo EJ, Thomas P. GPR30: a seven-transmembrane spanning estrogen receptor that triggers EGF release. Trends Endocrinol Metab. 2005;16:362–367.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacenik D, Cygankiewicz AI, Krajewska WM. The G protein-coupled estrogen receptor as a modulator of neoplastic transformation. Mol Cell Endocrinol. 2016;429:10–18.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lappano R, Rigiracciolo D, De Marco P, et al. Recent advances on the role of G protein-coupled receptors in hypoxia-mediated signaling. Aaps J. 2016;18:305–310.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Broselid S, Berg KA, Chavera TA, et al. G protein-coupled receptor 30 (GPR30) forms a plasma membrane complex with membrane-associated guanylate kinases (MAGUKs) and protein kinase A-anchoring protein 5 (AKAP5) that constitutively inhibits cAMP production. J Biol Chem. 2014;289:22117–22127.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ariazi EA, Brailoiu E, Yerrum S, et al. The G protein-coupled receptor GPR30 inhibits proliferation of estrogen receptorpositive breast cancer cells. Cancer Res. 2010;70:1184–1194.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maggiolini M, Vivacqua A, Fasanella G, et al. The G protein-coupled receptor GPR30 mediates c-fos up-regulation by 17beta-estradiol and phytoestrogens in breast cancer cells. J Biol Chem. 2004;279:27008–27016.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pandey DP, Lappano R, Albanito L, et al. Estrogenic GPR30 signalling induces proliferation and migration of breast cancer cells through CTGF. Embo J. 2009;28:523–532.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ren J, Guo H, Wu H, et al. GPER in CAFs regulates hypoxia-driven breast cancer invasion in a CTGF-dependent manner. Oncol Rep. 2015;33:1929–1937.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yu T, Yang G, Hou Y, et al. Cytoplasmic GPER translocation in cancer-associated fibroblasts mediates cAMP/PKA/CREB/glycolytic axis to confer tumor cells with multidrug resistance. Oncogene. 2016 Oct 10. DOI:10.1038/onc.2016.370
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ariazi EA, Ariazi JL, Cordera F, et al. Estrogen receptors as therapeutic targets in breast cancer. Curr Top Med Chem. 2006;6:181–202.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang LJ, Han SX, Bai E, et al. Dose-dependent effect of tamoxifen in tamoxifen-resistant breast cancer cells via stimulation by the ERK1/2 and AKT signaling pathways. Oncol Rep. 2013;29:1563–1569.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hanahan D, Weinberg RA. The hallmarks of cancer, next generation. Cell. 2011;144:646–674.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ignatov A, Ignatov T, Roessner A, et al. Role of GPR30 in the mechanisms of tamoxifen resistance in breast cancer MCF-7 cells. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 2010;123:87–96.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mo Z, Liu M, Yang F, et al. GPR30 as an initiator of tamoxifen resistance in hormone-dependent breast cancer. Breast Cancer Res. 2013;15:R114.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ji Y, Han Z, Shao L, et al. Ultrasound-targeted microtubule destruction of calcium channel subunit α 1D siRNA inhibits breast cancer via G protein-coupled receptor 30. Oncol Rep. 2016;36:1886–1892.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhou X, Wang S, Wang Z, et al. Estrogen regulates hippo signaling via GPER in breast cancer. J Clin Invest. 2015;125:2123–2135.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bachmann-Moisson N, Barberi-Heyob M, Merlin JL, et al. Cytotoxicity of tamoxifen and its principal metabolites in human breast cancer cell lines. Bull Cancer. 1996;83:808–815.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vivacqua A, Bonofiglio D, Recchia AG, et al. The G protein-coupled receptor GPR30 mediates the proliferative effects induced by 17beta-estradiol and hydroxytamoxifen in endometrial cancer cells. Mol Endocrinol. 2006;20:631–646.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bachelot T, McCool R, Duffy S, et al. Comparative efficacy of everolimus plus exemestane versus fulvestrant for hormone-receptor-positive advanced breast cancer following progression/recurrence after endocrine therapy: a network meta-analysis. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 2014;143:125–133.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Notas G, Kampa M, Pelekanou V, et al. Interplay of estrogen receptors and GPR30 for the regulation of early membrane initiated transcriptional effects: A pharmacological approach. Steroids. 2012;77:943–950.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen Y, Li Z, He Y, et al. Estrogen and pure antiestrogen fulvestrant (ICI 182,780) augment cell-matrigel adhesion of MCF-7 breast cancer cells through a novel G protein coupled estrogen receptor (GPR30)-to-calpain signaling axis. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 2014;275:176–181.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Filardo EJ, Graeber CT, Quinn JA, et al. Distribution of GPR30, a seven membrane-spanning estrogen receptor, in primary breast cancer and its association with clinicopathologic determinants of tumor progression. Clin Cancer Res. 2006;12:6359–6366.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gee JM, Robertson JF, Ellis IO, et al. Phosphorylation of ERK1/2 mitogen-activated protein kinase is associated with poor response to anti-hormonal therapy and decreased patient survival in clinical breast cancer. Int J Cancer. 2001;95:247–254.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sjöström M, Hartman L, Grabau D, et al. Lack of G protein-coupled estrogen receptor (GPER) in the plasma membrane is associated with excellent long-term prognosis in breast cancer. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 2014;145:61–71.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vivacqua A, Lappano R, De Marco P, et al. G protein-coupled receptor 30 expression is up-regulated by EGF and TGF alpha in estrogen receptor alpha-positive cancer cells. Mol Endocrinol. 2009;23:1815–1826.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ohshiro K, Schwartz AM, Levine PH, et al. Alternate estrogen receptors promote invasion of inflammatory breast cancer cells via non-genomic signaling. PLoS One. 2012;7:e30725.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Marco P, Cirillo F, Vivacqua A, et al. Novel aspects concerning the functional cross-talk between the insulin/IGF-I system and estrogen signaling in cancer cells. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2015;6:30.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Albanito L, Madeo A, Lappano R, et al. G protein-coupled receptor 30 (GPR30) mediates gene expression changes and growth response to 17β-estradiol and selective GPR30 ligand G-1 in ovarian cancer cells. Cancer Res. 2007;67:1859–1866.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Denger S, Reid G, Kos M, et al. ER alpha gene expression in human primary osteoblasts: evidence for the expression of two receptor proteins. Mol Endocrinol. 2001;15:2064–2077.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang ZY, Yin L. Estrogen receptor alpha-36 (ER-α36): A new player in human breast cancer. Mol Cell Endocrinol. 2015;418(Pt 3):193–206.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Toran-Allerand CD. Minireview: A plethora of estrogen receptors in the brain: where will it end? Endocrinology. 2004;145:1069–1174.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu J, Xu Z, Ma X, et al. Role of ER-α36 in breast cancer by typical xenoestrogens. Tumor Biol. 2015;36:7355–7364.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klinge CM, Riggs KA, Wickramasinghe NS, et al. Estrogen receptor alpha 46 is reduced in tamoxifen resistant breast cancer cells and re-expression inhibits cell proliferation and estrogen receptor alpha 66-regulated target gene transcription. Mol Cell Endocrinol. 2010;323:268–276.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kang L, Zhang X, Xie Y, et al. Involvement of estrogen receptor variant ER-alpha36, not GPR30, in nongenomic estrogen signaling. Mol Endocrinol. 2010;24:709–721.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prossnitz ER, Barton M. Signaling physiological functions and clinical relevance of the G protein-coupled estrogen receptor GPER. Prostaglandins Other Lipid Mediat. 2009;89:89–97.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maehle AH. Ambiguous cells: the emergence of the stem cell concept in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Notes Rec R Soc Lond. 2011;65:359–378.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu Q, Li JG, Zheng XY, et al. Expression of CD133, PAX2, ESA, and GPR30 in invasive ductal breast carcinomas. Chin Med J. 2009;122:2763–2769.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Beça FF, Caetano P, Gerhard R, et al. Cancer stem cells markers CD44, CD24 and ALDH1 in breast cancer special histological types. J Clin Pathol. 2013;66:187–191.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Al-Hajj M, Wicha MS, Ito-Hernandez A, et al. Prospective identification of tumorigenic breast cancer cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2003;100:3983–3988.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Han JS, Crowe DL. Tumor initiating cancer stem cells from human breast cancer cell lines. Int J Oncol. 2009;34:1449–1453.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dontu G, El-Ashry D, Wicha MS. Breast cancer, stem/progenitor cells and the estrogen receptor. Trends Endocrinol Metab. 2004;15:193–197.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chieffi P, Chieffi S. Molecular biomarkers as potential targets for therapeutic strategies in human testicular germ cell tumors: an overview. J Cell Physiol. 2013;228:1641–1646.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jia B, Gao Y, Li M, et al. GPR30 promotes prostate stromal cell activation via suppression of ERα expression and its downstream signaling pathway. Endocrinology. 2016;157:3023–3035.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Teplyuk NM, Galindo M, Teplyuk VI, et al. Runx2 regulates G protein-coupled signaling pathways to control growth of osteoblast progenitors. J Biol Chem. 2008;283:27585–27597.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Catusse J, Wollner S, Leick M, et al. Attenuation of CXCR4 responses by CCL18 in acute lymphocytic leukemia B cells. J Cell Physiol. 2010;225:792–800.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gonzalez GA, Hofer MP, Syed YA, et al. Tamoxifen accelerates the repair of demyelinated lesions in the central nervous system. Sci Rep. 2016;6:31599.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deng H, Zhang XT, Wang ML, et al. ER-α36-mediated rapid estrogen signaling positively regulates ER-positive breast cancer stem/progenitor cells. PLoS One. 2014;9:e88034.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Storci G, Sansone P, Trere D, et al. The basal-like breast carcinoma phenotype is regulated by SLUG gene expression. J Pathol. 2008;214:25–37.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nardone A, De Angelis C, Trivedi MV, et al. The changing role of ER in endocrine resistance. Breast. 2015;24:560–566.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Catalano S, Giordano C, Panza S, et al. Tamoxifen through GPER upregulates aromatase expression: a novel mechanism sustaining tamoxifen-resistant breast cancer. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 2014;146:273–285.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar