351
Views
0
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Blood-based biomarkers of chronic inflammation

Pages 495-504 | Received 16 Mar 2023, Accepted 16 May 2023, Published online: 22 May 2023

References

  • Majno G. The healing hand : man and wound in the ancient world. Cambridge: Mass: Harvard University Press; 1975.
  • Celsus A. De Medicina. Translated Harvard University Press 1935:Spencer WG 1938;Vol. 3(25):p. 3. translator
  • Long ER. Selected readings in pathology. London: Bailliere, Tindall and Cox; 1929.
  • Turk JL. Inflammation: John Hunter’s “A treatise on the blood, inflammation and gun-shot wounds”. Int J Exp Pathol. 1994 Dec;75(6):385–395.
  • Cohnheim JF. Uber Entzundung und Eiterung “About inflammation and suppuration”. Archiv für pathologische Anatomie und Physiologie und für klinische Medicin Virchows Archives. 1867;40:1.
  • Wallach D, Kang TB, Kovalenko A. Concepts of tissue injury and cell death in inflammation: a historical perspective. Nat Rev Immunol. 2014 Jan;14(1):51–59.
  • Metchnikoff E. Lectures on the comparative pathology of inflammation; delivered at the Pasteur Institute in 1891. (NY): Dover Publications; 1968.
  • Freire MO, Van Dyke TE. Natural resolution of inflammation.Periodontol. 2000 [2013 Oct];63(1):149–164. DOI:10.1111/prd.12034.
  • Alessandri AL, Sousa LP, Lucas CD, et al. Resolution of inflammation: mechanisms and opportunity for drug development. Pharmacol Ther. 2013 Aug;139(2):189–212.
  • Feehan KT, Gilroy DW. Is resolution the end of inflammation? Trends Mol Med. 2019 Mar;25(3):198–214.
  • Bray C, Bell LN, Liang H, et al. Erythrocyte sedimentation rate and c-reactive protein measurements and their relevance in clinical medicine. WMJ. 2016 Dec;115(6):317–321.
  • Abdolmaleki F, Kovanen PT, Mardani R, et al. Resolvins: emerging players in autoimmune and inflammatory diseases. Clin Rev Allergy Immunol. 2020 Feb;58(1):82–91.
  • Wahl AF, Wallace PM. Oncostatin M in the anti-inflammatory response. Ann Rheum Dis. 2001 Nov;60(Suppl 3):iii75–80.
  • Nathan C, Ding A. Non-resolving inflammation. Cell. 2010 Mar 19;140(6):871–882.
  • Nathan C. Non-resolving inflammation redux. Immunity. 2022 Apr 12;55(4):592–605.
  • Wilkinson HN, Hardman MJ. Wound healing: cellular mechanisms and pathological outcomes. Open Biol. 2020 Sep;10(9):200223.
  • Martin P, Nunan R. Cellular and molecular mechanisms of repair in acute and chronic wound healing. Br J Dermatol. 2015 Aug;173(2):370–378.
  • Klemperer P, Pollack AD, Baeher G. Diffuse collagen disease. J A M A. 1942;119(4):331,–332.
  • Klemperer P. The concept of collagen diseases. Am J Pathol. 1950 Jul;26(4):505–519.
  • Menkin V. Dynamics of inflammation. New York: The MacMillan Company; 1940.
  • Sieper J, Braun J, Dougados M, et al. Axial spondyloarthritis. Nat Rev Dis Primers. 2015 Jul 9;1(1):15013. DOI:10.1038/nrdp.2015.13
  • Deane EHW. Costal Chondritis (Tietze’s Disease). Lancet. 1951;257(6660):883–884.
  • La Cava G. Enthesitis; traumatic disease of insertions. J Am Med Assoc. 1959 Jan 17;169(3):254–255.
  • Watad A, Bridgewood C, Russell T, et al. The early phases of ankylosing spondylitis: emerging insights from clinical and basic science. Front Immunol. 2018;9:2668.
  • Fink SL, Cookson BT. Apoptosis, pyroptosis, and necrosis: mechanistic description of dead and dying eukaryotic cells. Infect Immun. 2005 Apr;73(4):1907–1916.
  • Vasconcelos-Cardoso M, Batista-Almeida D, Rios-Barros LV, et al. Cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying plasma membrane functionality and integrity. J Cell Sci. 2022 Jul 1;135(13). doi:10.1242/jcs.259806
  • Fahreus R. CHAPTER IV: the suspension‐stability of the blood under different physiological nnd pathological conditions, especially during pregnancy. Acta Medica Scandinavica. 1921;55(1):70–92.
  • Lapic I, Padoan A, Bozzato D, et al. Erythrocyte sedimentation rate and c-reactive protein in acute inflammation. Am J Clin Pathol. 2020 Jan 1;153(1):14–29. DOI:10.1093/ajcp/aqz142
  • Pepys MB. C-reactive protein fifty years on. Lancet. 1981 Mar 21;1(8221):653–657.
  • Gabay C, Kushner I, Epstein FH. Acute-phase proteins and other systemic responses to inflammation. N Engl J Med. 1999 Feb 11;340(6):448–454.
  • Fahreus R. The Suspension-stability of the BIood. Acta Medica Scandinavica. 1921;55(1):3–7.
  • Tillett WS, Francis T. Serological reactions in pneumonia with a non-protein somatic fraction of pneumococcus. J Exp Med. 1930 Sep 30;52(4):561–571.
  • Tang D, Kang R, Coyne CB, et al. Pamps and DAMPs: signal 0s that spur autophagy and immunity. Immunol Rev. 2012 Sep;249(1):158–175.
  • Havnaer A, Han G. Autoinflammatory disorders: a review and update on pathogenesis and treatment. Am J Clin Dermatol. 2019 Aug;20(4):539–564.
  • Gutierrez MJ, Lapidus SK. Systemic autoinflammatory diseases: a growing family of disorders of overlapping immune dysfunction. Rheum Dis Clin North Am. 2022 Feb;48(1):371–395.
  • Pathak S, McDermott MF, Savic S. Autoinflammatory diseases: update on classification diagnosis and management. J Clin Pathol. 2017 Jan;70(1):1–8.
  • Medzhitov R. The spectrum of inflammatory responses. Science. 2021 Nov 26;374(6571):1070–1075.
  • Abernethy TJ, Avery OT. The occurrence during acute infections of a protein not normally present in the blood: i. distribution of the reactive protein in patients’ sera and the effect of calcium on the flocculation reaction with c polysaccharide of pneumococcus. J Exp Med. 1941 Jan 31;73(2):173–182.
  • Rock KL, Latz E, Ontiveros F, et al. The sterile inflammatory response. Annu Rev Immunol. 2010;28(1):321–342. DOI:10.1146/annurev-immunol-030409-101311
  • Feldman M, Aziz B, Kang GN, et al. C-reactive protein and erythrocyte sedimentation rate discordance: frequency and causes in adults. Transl Res. 2013 Jan;161(1):37–43.
  • Kushner I. Semantics, inflammation, cytokines and common sense. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev. 1998 Sep;9(3–4):191–196.
  • Cox ML, Rudd AG, Gallimore R, et al. Real-time measurement of serum C-reactive protein in the management of infection in the elderly. Age Ageing. 1986 Sep;15(5):257–266.
  • Furman D, Campisi J, Verdin E, et al. Chronic inflammation in the etiology of disease across the life span. Nat Med. 2019 Dec;25(12):1822–1832.
  • Reveille JD. Biomarkers in axial spondyloarthritis and low back pain: a comprehensive review. Clin Rheumatol. 2022 Mar;41(3):617–634.
  • Coates LC, Baraliakos X, Blanco FJ, et al. The Phenotype of Axial Spondyloarthritis: is It Dependent on HLA-B27 Status? Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken). 2021 Jun;73(6):856–860.
  • Rosenbaum JT, Weisman MH, Hamilton H, et al. HLA-B27 is associated with reduced disease activity in axial spondyloarthritis. Sci Rep. 2021 Jun 10;11(1):12331. DOI:10.1038/s41598-021-91829-5
  • Bowness P. Hla-B27. Annu Rev Immunol. 2015;33(1):29–48.
  • Navid F, Holt V, Colbert RA. The enigmatic role of HLA-B*27 in spondyloarthritis pathogenesis. Semin Immunopathol. 2021 Apr;43(2):235–243.
  • Kavadichanda CG, Geng J, Bulusu SN, et al. Spondyloarthritis and the Human Leukocyte Antigen (HLA)-B(*)27 Connection. Front Immunol. 2021;12:601518.
  • Moreno M, Gratacos J, Torrente-Segarra V, et al. Withdrawal of infliximab therapy in ankylosing spondylitis in persistent clinical remission, results from the REMINEA study. Arthritis Res Ther. 2019 Apr 5;21(1):88. DOI:10.1186/s13075-019-1873-3
  • Louis E, Resche-Rigon M, Laharie D, et al. Withdrawal of infliximab or concomitant immunosuppressant therapy in patients with Crohn’s disease on combination therapy (SPARE): a multicentre, open-label, randomised controlled trial. Lancet Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2023 Mar;8(3):215–227.
  • Wu Q, Inman RD, Davis KD. Tumor necrosis factor inhibitor therapy in ankylosing spondylitis: differential effects on pain and fatigue and brain correlates. Pain. 2015 Feb;156(2):297–304.
  • Braun J. Using combinations of biomarkers to understand inflammation and bone formation in axial spondyloarthritis - is anything better than CRP? Rheumatology (Oxford). 2019 Sep 1;58(9):1517–1519.
  • Diaconu AD, Ceasovschih A, Sorodoc V, et al. Practical significance of biomarkers in axial spondyloarthritis: updates on diagnosis, disease activity, and prognosis. Int J Mol Sci. 2022 Sep 30;23(19):11561. DOI:10.3390/ijms231911561
  • Turina MC, Landewe R, Baeten D. Lessons to be learned from serum biomarkers in psoriasis and IBD - the potential role in SpA. Expert Rev Clin Immunol. 2017 Apr;13(4):333–344.
  • Guiot J, Moermans C, Henket M, et al. Blood biomarkers in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Lung. 2017 Jun;195(3):273–280.
  • Mikolasevic I, Domislovic V, Krznaric-Zrnic I, et al. The accuracy of serum biomarkers in the diagnosis of steatosis, fibrosis, and inflammation in patients with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease in comparison to a liver biopsy. Med (Kaunas). 2022 Feb 8;58(2):252. DOI:10.3390/medicina58020252
  • D’Aiuto F, Orlandi M, Gunsolley JC. Evidence that periodontal treatment improves biomarkers and CVD outcomes. J Clin Periodontol. 2013 Apr;40(Suppl 14):S85–105.
  • Tavares LTR, Saavedra-Silva M, Lopez-Marcos JF, et al. Blood and salivary inflammatory biomarkers profile in patients with chronic kidney disease and periodontal disease: a systematic review. Diseases. 2022 Feb 17;10(1):12. DOI:10.3390/diseases10010012
  • Rasmussen LJH, Petersen JEV, Eugen-Olsen J. Soluble urokinase plasminogen activator receptor (supar) as a biomarker of systemic chronic inflammation. Front Immunol. 2021;12:780641.
  • Liu H, Feng J, Tang L. Early renal structural changes and potential biomarkers in diabetic nephropathy. Front Physiol. 2022;13:1020443.
  • Anderson NL, Anderson NG. The human plasma proteome: history, character, and diagnostic prospects. Mol & Cell Proteomics. 2002 Nov;1(11):845–867.
  • Birkelund S, Bennike TB, Kastaniegaard K, et al. Proteomic analysis of synovial fluid from rheumatoid arthritis and spondyloarthritis patients. Clin Proteomics. 2020;17(1):29. DOI:10.1186/s12014-020-09292-9
  • Vigushin DM, Pepys MB, Hawkins PN. Metabolic and scintigraphic studies of radioiodinated human C-reactive protein in health and disease. J Clin Invest. 1993 Apr;91(4):1351–1357.
  • Boncler M, Wu Y, Watala C. The multiple faces of c-reactive protein—physiological and pathophysiological implications in cardiovascular disease. Molecules. 2019 May 30;24(11):2062.
  • Gornik O, Lauc G. Glycosylation of serum proteins in inflammatory diseases. Dis Markers. 2008;25(4–5):267–278.
  • Das T, Sen AK, Kempf T, et al. Induction of glycosylation in human C-reactive protein under different pathological conditions. Biochem J. 2003 Jul 15;373(Pt 2):345–355. DOI:10.1042/bj20021701
  • Das T, Mandal C, Mandal C. Variations in binding characteristics of glycosylated human C-reactive proteins in different pathological conditions. Glycoconj J. 2004;20(9):537–543.
  • Potempa LA, Qiu WQ, Stefanski A, et al. Relevance of lipoproteins, membranes, and extracellular vesicles in understanding C-reactive protein biochemical structure and biological activities. Front Cardiovasc Med. 2022;9:979461.
  • Siebuhr AS, Husakova M, Forejtova S, et al. Metabolites of C-reactive protein and vimentin are associated with disease activity of axial spondyloarthritis. Clin Exp Rheumatol. 2019 May;37(3):358–366.
  • Sproston NR, Ashworth JJ. Role of C-Reactive protein at sites of inflammation and infection. Front Immunol. 2018;9:754.
  • Manley PN, Ancsin JB, Kisilevsky R. Rapid recycling of cholesterol: the joint biologic role of C-reactive protein and serum amyloid a. Med Hypotheses. 2006;66(4):784–792.
  • Maijer KI, Gudmann NS, Karsdal MA, et al. Neo-Epitopes–Fragments of cartilage and connective tissue degradation in early rheumatoid arthritis and unclassified arthritis. PLoS ONE. 2016;11(3):e0149329. DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0149329
  • Claushuis TA, de Vries MK, van der Weijden MA, et al. C-reactive protein polymorphisms influence serum CRP-levels independent of disease activity in ankylosing spondylitis. Clin Exp Rheumatol. 2015 Mar;33(2):159–165.
  • Ngwa DN, Agrawal A. Structure-Function Relationships of C-Reactive Protein in Bacterial Infection. Front Immunol. 2019;10:166.
  • Filep JG. Targeting conformational changes in C-reactive protein to inhibit pro-inflammatory actions. EMBO Mol Med. 2022 Dec 5;15(1):e17003.
  • Poddubnyy DA, Rudwaleit M, Listing J, et al. Comparison of a high sensitivity and standard C reactive protein measurement in patients with ankylosing spondylitis and non-radiographic axial spondyloarthritis. Ann Rheum Dis. 2010 Jul;69(7):1338–1341.
  • Levinson T, Tamir N, Shenhar-Tsarfaty S, et al. The potential benefit of a second C-reactive protein measurement in patients with gram-negative bacteraemia presenting to the emergency medicine department. Biomarkers. 2020 Nov;25(7):533–538.
  • Sterling M, Head J, Cabot PJ, et al. Serum C-reactive protein levels predict regional brain responses to noxious cold stimulation of the hand in chronic whiplash associated disorders. Scand J Pain. 2016 Apr;11(1):19–26.
  • de Vries MK, van Eijk IC, van der Horst-Bruinsma IE, et al. Erythrocyte sedimentation rate, C-reactive protein level, and serum amyloid a protein for patient selection and monitoring of anti-tumor necrosis factor treatment in ankylosing spondylitis. Arthritis Rheum. 2009 Nov 15;61(11):1484–1490. DOI:10.1002/art.24838
  • Poddubnyy D, Haibel H, Listing J, et al. Baseline radiographic damage, elevated acute-phase reactant levels, and cigarette smoking status predict spinal radiographic progression in early axial spondylarthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 2012 May;64(5):1388–1398.
  • Braun J, Baraliakos X, Hermann KG, et al. Serum C-reactive protein levels demonstrate predictive value for radiographic and magnetic resonance imaging outcomes in patients with active ankylosing spondylitis treated with golimumab. J Rheumatol. 2016 Sep;43(9):1704–1712.
  • Gurke R, Bendes A, Bowes J, et al. Omics and multi-omics analysis for the early identification and improved outcome of patients with psoriatic arthritis. Biomedicines. 2022 Sep 24;10(10):2387. DOI:10.3390/biomedicines10102387
  • Alexander M, O’Connell RM. Noncoding RNAs and chronic inflammation: micro-managing the fire within. BioEssays. 2015 Sep;37(9):1005–1015.
  • Yoneda T, Tomofuji T, Ekuni D, et al. Serum microRnas and chronic periodontitis: a case-control study. Arch Oral Biol. 2019 May;101:57–63.
  • Cheong JK, Rajgor D, Lv Y, et al. Noncoding rnome as enabling biomarkers for precision health. Int J Mol Sci. 2022 Sep 8;23(18):10390. DOI:10.3390/ijms231810390
  • Roe K. An inflammation classification system using cytokine parameters. Scand J Immunol. 2021 Feb;93(2):e12970.
  • Kato A, Peters AT, Stevens WW, et al. Endotypes of chronic rhinosinusitis: relationships to disease phenotypes, pathogenesis, clinical findings, and treatment approaches. Allergy. 2022 Mar;77(3):812–826.
  • Pritzker KP, Pritzker LB. Bioinformatics advances for clinical biomarker development. Expert Opin Med Diagn. 2012 Jan;6(1):39–48.
  • Pritzker KP. Biomarker imprecision in precision medicine. Expert Rev Mol Diagn. 2018 Aug;18(8):685–687.
  • Mondal S, Thompson PR. Chemical biology of protein citrullination by the protein a arginine deiminases. Curr Opin Chem Biol. 2021 Aug;63:19–27.
  • Cabrera-Villalba S, Gomara MJ, Canete JD, et al. Differing specificities and isotypes of anti-citrullinated peptide/protein antibodies in palindromic rheumatism and rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Res Ther. 2017 Jun 15;19(1):141. DOI:10.1186/s13075-017-1329-6
  • Mun S, Lee J, Park M, et al. Serum biomarker panel for the diagnosis of rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Res Ther. 2021 Jan 18;23(1):31. DOI:10.1186/s13075-020-02405-7
  • Cai L, Rubin J, Han W, et al. The origin of multiple molecular forms in urine of HNL/NGAL. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2010 Dec;5(12):2229–2235.
  • Catalan V, Gomez-Ambrosi J, Rodriguez A, et al. Increased adipose tissue expression of lipocalin-2 in obesity is related to inflammation and matrix metalloproteinase-2 and metalloproteinase-9 activities in humans. J Mol Med (Berl). 2009 Aug;87(8):803–813.
  • Lin A, Inman RD, Streutker CJ, et al. Lipocalin 2 links inflammation and ankylosis in the clinical overlap of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and ankylosing spondylitis (AS). Arthritis Res Ther. 2020 Mar 18;22(1):51. DOI:10.1186/s13075-020-02149-4
  • Tsui FWL, Lin A, Sari I, et al. Serial Lipocalin 2 and Oncostatin M levels reflect inflammation status and treatment response in axial spondyloarthritis. Arthritis Res Ther. 2021 May 14;23(1):141. DOI:10.1186/s13075-021-02521-y
  • Tsui F W, Lin A, Sari I, et al. The role of LCN2 and LCN2-MMP9 in spondylitis radiographic development: gender and HLA-B27 status differences. Arthritis Res Ther. 2022;24(1):164. DOI:10.1186/s13075-022-02854-2
  • Paranjape K, Schinkel M, Hammer RD, et al. The value of artificial intelligence in laboratory medicine. Am J Clin Pathol. 2021 May 18;155(6):823–831. DOI:10.1093/ajcp/aqaa170
  • Carobene A, Cabitza F, Bernardini S, et al. Where is laboratory medicine headed in the next decade? Partnership model for efficient integration and adoption of artificial intelligence into medical laboratories. Clin Chem Lab Med. 2023 Mar 28;61(4):535–543. DOI:10.1515/cclm-2022-1030
  • Jalali S, Maleki A, editor. Minimum Complexity Pursuit. 49th Allerton Conference on Communication, Control and Computing, 28-30 September 2011, Monticello lL, USA: Cornell University; 2011.
  • Kocak B. Key concepts, common pitfalls, and best practices in artificial intelligence and machine learning: focus on radiomics. Diagn Interv Radiol. 2022 Sep;28(5):450–462.
  • FDA. Artificial intelligence and Machine Learning (AI/ML)-Enabled Medical Devices 2022 [cited 2022 Oct 52022]. Available from: https://www.fda.gov/medical-devices/software-medical-device-samd/artificial-intelligence-and-machine-learning-aiml-enabled-medical-devices
  • Herman DS, Rhoads DD, Schulz WL, et al. Artificial intelligence and mapping a new direction in laboratory medicine: a review. Clin Chem. 2021 Nov 1;67(11):1466–1482. DOI:10.1093/clinchem/hvab165
  • Hulsen T, Friedecky D, Renz H, et al. From big data to better patient outcomes. Clin Chem Lab Med. 2023 Mar 28;61(4):580–586. DOI:10.1515/cclm-2022-1096

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.