257
Views
2
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Contemporary outcomes studies to identify and mitigate the risk in patients with premature cardiovascular disease

ORCID Icon, , , ORCID Icon, , & show all
Pages 559-570 | Received 14 Jan 2021, Accepted 08 Feb 2021, Published online: 17 Feb 2021

References

  • Virani SS, Alonso A, Benjamin EJ, et al. Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics-2020 Update: a Report From the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2020;141(9):e139–e596.
  • Khera R, Valero-Elizondo J, Okunrintemi V, et al. Association of Out-of-Pocket Annual Health Expenditures With Financial Hardship in Low-Income Adults With Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease in the United States. JAMA Cardiol. 2018;3(8):729–738.
  • Arnett DK, Blumenthal RS, Albert MA, et al. 2019 ACC/AHA Guideline on the Primary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease: executive Summary: a Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2019;74(10):1376–1414.
  • Global Burden of Cardiovascular Diseases Collaboration, Roth GA, Johnson CO, et al. The Burden of Cardiovascular Diseases Among US States, 1990–2016. JAMA Cardiol. 2018;3(5):375–389. doi:10.1001/jamacardio.2018.0385
  • Wilmot KA, O’flaherty M, Capewell S, et al. Coronary Heart Disease Mortality Declines in the United States From 1979 Through 2011 Evidence for Stagnation in Young Adults, Especially Women. Circulation. 2015;132(11):997–1002.
  • Guo X, Li Z, Vittinghoff E, et al. Trends in rate of acute myocardial infarction among patients aged <30 years. Nat Rev Cardiol. 2018;15(2):119.
  • Izadnegahdar M, Singer J, Lee MK, et al. Do younger women fare worse? Sex differences in acute myocardial infarction hospitalization and early mortality rates over ten years. J Womens Health (Larchmt). 2014;23(1):10–17.
  • O’flaherty M, Ford E, Allender S, et al. Coronary heart disease trends in England and Wales from 1984 to 2004: concealed levelling of mortality rates among young adults. Heart. 2008;94(2):178–181.
  • O’flaherty M, Allender S, Taylor R, et al. The decline in coronary heart disease mortality is slowing in young adults (Australia 1976–2006): a time trend analysis. Int J Cardiol. 2012;158(2):193–198.
  • Krittanawong C, Liu Y, Mahtta D, et al. Non-traditional risk factors and the risk of myocardial infarction in the young in the US population-based cohort. Int J Cardiol Heart Vasc. 2020;30100634.
  • Mahtta D, Khalid U, Misra A, et al. Premature Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease: what Have We Learned Recently. Curr Atheroscler Rep. 2020;22(9):44.
  • Vikulova DN, Grubisic M, Zhao Y, et al. Premature Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease: trends in Incidence, Risk Factors, and Sex‐Related Differences, 2000 to 2016. J Am Heart Assoc. 2019;8(14):e012178.
  • Andersson C, Vasan RS. Epidemiology of cardiovascular disease in young individuals. Nat Rev Cardiol. 2018;15(4):230–240.
  • Khan SS, Ning H, Wilkins JT, et al. Association of Body Mass Index With Lifetime Risk of Cardiovascular Disease and Compression of Morbidity. JAMA Cardiol. 2018;3(4):280–287.
  • Putaala J, Metso AJ, Metso TM, et al. Analysis of 1008 consecutive patients aged 15 to 49 with first-ever ischemic stroke: the Helsinki young stroke registry. Stroke. 2009;40(4):1195–1203.
  • Ge JJ, Xing YQ, Chen HX, et al. Analysis of young ischemic stroke patients in northeast China. Ann Transl Med. 2020;8(1):3.
  • Garshick MS, Vaidean GD, Vani A, et al. Cardiovascular Risk Factor Control and Lifestyle Factors in Young to Middle-Aged Adults with Newly Diagnosed Obstructive Coronary Artery Disease. Cardiology. 2019;142(2):83–90.
  • Ogden CL, Carroll MD, Fryar CD, et al. Prevalence of Obesity Among Adults and Youth: United States, 2011–2014. NCHS Data Brief. 2015;219:1–8.
  • Ncd RFCNCD-R. Trends in adult body-mass index in 200 countries from 1975 to 2014: a pooled analysis of 1698 population-based measurement studies with 19·2 million participants. Lancet. 2016;387(10026):1377–1396.
  • Pandey A, Salahuddin U, Garg S, et al. Continuous Dose-Response Association Between Sedentary Time and Risk for Cardiovascular Disease: a Meta-analysis. JAMA Cardiol. 2016;1(5):575–583.
  • Lahtinen M, Toukola T, Junttila MJ, et al. Effect of Changes in Physical Activity on Risk for Cardiac Death in Patients With Coronary Artery Disease. Am J Cardiol. 2018;121(2):143–148.
  • Von Sarnowski B, Putaala J, Grittner U, et al. Lifestyle risk factors for ischemic stroke and transient ischemic attack in young adults in the Stroke in Young Fabry Patients study. Stroke. 2013;44(1):119–125.
  • Prevention CFDCA. Trends in Meeting the 2008 Physical Activity Guidelines, 2008–2018. (2020).
  • Raitakari OT, Taimela S, Porkka KV, et al. Associations between physical activity and risk factors for coronary heart disease: the Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns Study. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1997;29(8):1055–1061.
  • Salin K, Kankaanpää A, Hirvensalo M, et al. Smoking and Physical Activity Trajectories from Childhood to Midlife. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2019;16:6.
  • Yang WX, Yang Z, Wu YJ, et al. Factors associated with coronary artery disease in young population (age ≤ 40): analysis with 217 cases. Chin Med Sci J. 2014;29(1):38–42.
  • Lane JS, Vittinghoff E, Lane KT, et al. Risk factors for premature peripheral vascular disease: results for the National Health and Nutritional Survey, 1999–2002. J Vasc Surg. 2006;44(2):319–324.
  • Spengos K, Vemmos K. Risk factors, etiology, and outcome of first-ever ischemic stroke in young adults aged 15 to 45 - the Athens young stroke registry. Eur J Neurol. 2010;17(11):1358–1364.
  • Moskowitz WB, Schwartz PF, Schieken RM. Childhood passive smoking, race, and coronary artery disease risk: the MCV Twin Study. Medical College of Virginia. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 1999;153(5):446–453.
  • Bhatnagar A, Whitsel LP, Blaha MJ, et al. New and Emerging Tobacco Products and the Nicotine Endgame: the Role of Robust Regulation and Comprehensive Tobacco Control and Prevention: a Presidential Advisory From the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2019;139(19):e937–e958.
  • Gbd RFC. Global, regional, and national comparative risk assessment of 84 behavioural, environmental and occupational, and metabolic risks or clusters of risks for 195 countries and territories, 1990–2017: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017. Lancet. 2018;392(10159):1923–1994.
  • Abdullah SM, Defina LF, Leonard D, et al. Long-Term Association of Low-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol With Cardiovascular Mortality in Individuals at Low 10-Year Risk of Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease. Circulation. 2018;138(21):2315–2325.
  • Maillet A, Desormais I, Rivière AB, et al. Peripheral Atheromatous Arterial Disease in the Young: risk Factors, Clinical Features, and Prognosis From the COPART Cohort. Angiology. 2017;68(10):893–898.
  • Ji R, Schwamm LH, Pervez MA, et al. Ischemic stroke and transient ischemic attack in young adults: risk factors, diagnostic yield, neuroimaging, and thrombolysis. JAMA Neurol. 2013;70(1):51–57.
  • Navar-Boggan AM, Peterson ED, D’agostino RB, et al. Hyperlipidemia in early adulthood increases long-term risk of coronary heart disease. Circulation. 2015;131(5):451–458.
  • Perak AM, Ning H, Kit BK, et al. Trends in Levels of Lipids and Apolipoprotein B in US Youths Aged 6 to 19 Years, 1999–2016. JAMA. 2019;321(19):1895–1905.
  • De Ferranti SD, Rodday AM, Parsons SK, et al. Cholesterol Screening and Treatment Practices and Preferences: a Survey of United States Pediatricians. J Pediatr. 2017;18599–105:e2.
  • Otaki Y, Gransar H, Cheng VY, et al. Gender differences in the prevalence, severity, and composition of coronary artery disease in the young: a study of 1635 individuals undergoing coronary CT angiography from the prospective, multinational confirm registry. Eur Heart J Cardiovasc Imaging. 2015;16(5):490–499.
  • Schneider S, Kornejeva A, Vibo R, et al. Risk Factors and Etiology of Young Ischemic Stroke Patients in Estonia. Stroke Res Treat. 2017;20178075697.
  • George MG, Tong X, Bowman BA. Prevalence of Cardiovascular Risk Factors and Strokes in Younger Adults. JAMA Neurol. 2017;74(6):695–703.
  • Lloyd-Jones DM, Hong Y, Labarthe D, et al. Defining and setting national goals for cardiovascular health promotion and disease reduction: the American Heart Association’s strategic Impact Goal through 2020 and beyond. Circulation. 2010;121(4):586–613.
  • Krittanawong C, Kumar A, Wang Z, et al. Coronary artery disease in the young in the US population-based cohort. Am J Cardiovasc Dis. 2020;10(3):189–194.
  • Beckowski M, Gierlotka M, Gąsior M, et al. Risk factors predisposing to acute coronary syndromes in young women ≤45 years of age. Int J Cardiol. 2018;264165–264169.
  • Davis M, Diamond J, Montgomery D, et al. Acute coronary syndrome in young women under 55 years of age: clinical characteristics, treatment, and outcomes. Clin Res Cardiol. 2015;104(8):648–655.
  • Dabelea D, Mayer-Davis EJ, Saydah S, et al. Prevalence of type 1 and type 2 diabetes among children and adolescents from 2001 to 2009. JAMA. 2014;311(17):1778–1786.
  • Liu LL, Lawrence JM, Davis C, et al. Prevalence of overweight and obesity in youth with diabetes in USA: the SEARCH for Diabetes in Youth study. Pediatr Diabetes. 2010;11(1):4–11.
  • Lloyd-Jones DM, Nam BH, D’agostino RB, et al. Parental cardiovascular disease as a risk factor for cardiovascular disease in middle-aged adults: a prospective study of parents and offspring. JAMA. 2004;291(18):2204–2211.
  • Parikh NI, Hwang SJ, Larson MG, et al. Parental occurrence of premature cardiovascular disease predicts increased coronary artery and abdominal aortic calcification in the Framingham Offspring and Third Generation cohorts. Circulation. 2007;116(13):1473–1481.
  • Ranthe MF, Carstensen L, Øyen N, et al. Family history of premature death and risk of early onset cardiovascular disease. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2012;60(9):814–821.
  • Bello-Chavolla OY, Kuri-García A, Ríos-Ríos M, et al. Familial Combined Hyperlipidemia: current Knowledge, Perspectives, and Controversies. Rev Invest Clin. 2018;70(5):224–236.
  • Singh A, Gupta A, Collins BL, et al. Familial Hypercholesterolemia Among Young Adults With Myocardial Infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2019;73(19):2439–2450.
  • Mcpherson R, Pertsemlidis A, Kavaslar N, et al. A common allele on chromosome 9 associated with coronary heart disease. Science. 2007;316(5830):1488–1491.
  • Dandona S, Stewart AF, Chen L, et al. Gene dosage of the common variant 9p21 predicts severity of coronary artery disease. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2010;56(6):479–486.
  • Smith JG, Melander O, Lövkvist H, et al. Common genetic variants on chromosome 9p21 confers risk of ischemic stroke: a large-scale genetic association study. Circ Cardiovasc Genet. 2009;2159–2164.
  • Palomaki GE, Melillo S, Bradley LA. Association between 9p21 genomic markers and heart disease: a meta-analysis. JAMA. 2010;303(7):648–656.
  • CARDIoGRAMplusC4D Consortium, Deloukas P, Kanoni S, et al. Large-scale association analysis identifies new risk loci for coronary artery disease. Nat Genet. 2013;45(1):25–33. doi:10.1038/ng.2480
  • Lin JS, Evans CV, Johnson E, et al. Nontraditional Risk Factors in Cardiovascular Disease Risk Assessment: a Systematic Evidence Report for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. (2018).
  • Long A, Long B, Koyfman A. Non-traditional risk factors for atherosclerotic disease: a review for emergency physicians. Am J Emerg Med. 2018;36(3):494–497.
  • Friedman HS. Cardiovascular effects of alcohol with particular reference to the heart. Alcohol. 1984;1(4):333–339.
  • Mahtta D, Ahmed ST, Shah NR, et al. Facility-Level Variation in Cardiac Stress Test Use Among Patients With Diabetes: findings From the Veterans Affairs National Database. Diabetes Care. 2020;43(5):e58–e60.
  • Lai S, Lima JA, Lai H, et al. Human immunodeficiency virus 1 infection, cocaine, and coronary calcification. Arch Intern Med. 2005;165(6):690–695.
  • Callaghan RC, Halliday M, Gatley J, et al. Comparative hazards of acute myocardial infarction among hospitalized patients with methamphetamine- or cocaine-use disorders: a retrospective cohort study. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2018;188259–188265.
  • Westover AN, Mcbride S, Haley RW. Stroke in young adults who abuse amphetamines or cocaine: a population-based study of hospitalized patients. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2007;64(4):495–502.
  • Kolodgie FD, Virmani R, Cornhill JF, et al. Increase in atherosclerosis and adventitial mast cells in cocaine abusers: an alternative mechanism of cocaine-associated coronary vasospasm and thrombosis. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1991;17(7):1553–1560.
  • Mechoulam R, Gaoni Y. The absolute configuration of δ1-tetrahydrocannabinol, the major active constituent of hashish. Tetrahedron Lett. 1967;8(12):1109–1111.
  • Singla S, Sachdeva R, Mehta JL. Cannabinoids and atherosclerotic coronary heart disease. Clin Cardiol. 2012;35(6):329–335.
  • Burt JR, Agha AM, Yacoub B, et al. Marijuana use and coronary artery disease in young adults. Plos One. 2020;15(1):e0228326.
  • Desbois AC, Cacoub P. Cannabis-associated arterial disease. Ann Vasc Surg. 2013.
  • Parekh T, Pemmasani S, Desai R. Marijuana Use Among Young Adults (18–44 Years of Age) and Risk of Stroke: a Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System Survey Analysis. Stroke. 2020.
  • Defilippis EM, Bajaj NS, Singh A, et al. Marijuana Use in Patients With Cardiovascular Disease: JACC Review Topic of the Week. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2020;75(3):320–332.
  • Bernson-Leung ME, Leung LY, Kumar S. Synthetic cannabis and acute ischemic stroke. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis. 2014;23(5):1239–1241.
  • Freeman MJ, Rose DZ, Myers MA, et al. Ischemic stroke after use of the synthetic marijuana spice. Neurology. 2013;81(24):2090–2093.
  • Baggish AL, Weiner RB, Kanayama G, et al. Cardiovascular toxicity of illicit anabolic-androgenic steroid use. Circulation. 2017;135(21):1991–2002.
  • Melhem AJ, Araújo AC, Figueiredo FNS, et al. Acute Myocardial Infarction in a Young Bodybuilder: a Case Report and Review of the Literature. Am J Case Rep. 2020;21e924796.
  • Christou GA, Christou KA, Nikas DN, et al. Acute myocardial infarction in a young bodybuilder taking anabolic androgenic steroids: a case report and critical review of the literature. Eur J Prev Cardiol. 2016;23(16):1785–1796.
  • Jain V, Goel G. Acute myocardial infarction in young newbie bodybuilder using multiple steroid and protein supplements. J Cardiol Cases. 2020;21(4):134–136.
  • Souza FRD, Santos MRD, Porello RA. Diminished cholesterol efflux mediated by HDL and coronary artery disease in young male anabolic androgenic steroid users. Atherosclerosis. 2019.
  • Vorona E, Nieschlag E. Adverse effects of doping with anabolic androgenic steroids in competitive athletics, recreational sports and bodybuilding. Minerva Endocrinol. 2018;43(4):476.
  • Lau DH, Stiles MK, John B, et al. Atrial fibrillation and anabolic steroid abuse. Int J Cardiol. 2007;117(2):e86–7.
  • Malarkey WB, Strauss RH, Leizman DJ, et al. Endocrine effects in female weight lifters who self-administer testosterone and anabolic steroids. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1991;165(5 Pt 1):1385–1390.
  • Cocchetti C, Ristori J, Romani A, et al. Hormonal Treatment Strategies Tailored to Non-Binary Transgender Individuals. J Clin Med. 2020;9:6.
  • Currier JS, Taylor A, Boyd F, et al. Coronary heart disease in HIV-infected individuals. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2003;33(4):506–512.
  • Chow FC, Regan S, Zanni MV, et al. Elevated ischemic stroke risk among women living with HIV infection. AIDS. 2018;32(1):59–67.
  • Calvo-Sanchez M, Perelló R, Pérez I, et al. Differences between HIV-infected and uninfected adults in the contributions of smoking, diabetes and hypertension to acute coronary syndrome: two parallel case-control studies. HIV Med. 2013;14(1):40–48.
  • Mdodo R, Frazier EL, Dube SR, et al. Cigarette smoking prevalence among adults with HIV compared with the general adult population in the United States: cross-sectional surveys. Ann Intern Med. 2015;162(5):335–344.
  • Losina E, Hyle EP, Borre ED, et al. Projecting 10-year, 20-year, and Lifetime Risks of Cardiovascular Disease in Persons Living With Human Immunodeficiency Virus in the United States. Clin Infect Dis. 2017;65(8):1266–1271.
  • Sinha A, Feinstein MJ. Coronary Artery Disease Manifestations in HIV: what, How, and Why. Can J Cardiol. 2019;35(3):270–279.
  • Lambert CT, Sandesara PB, Hirsh B, et al. HIV, highly active antiretroviral therapy and the heart: a cellular to epidemiological review. HIV Med. 2016;17(6):411–424.
  • Currier JS, Lundgren JD, Carr A, et al. Epidemiological evidence for cardiovascular disease in HIV-infected patients and relationship to highly active antiretroviral therapy. Circulation. 2008;118(2):e29–35.
  • Strategies FMOATSMARTSG, El-Sadr WM, Lundgren J, et al. CD4+ count-guided interruption of antiretroviral treatment. N Engl J Med 2006;355(22):2283–2296
  • Silverberg MJ, Leyden WA, Xu L, et al. Immunodeficiency and risk of myocardial infarction among HIV-positive individuals with access to care. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2014;65(2):160–166.
  • Triant VA, Lee H, Hadigan C, et al. Increased acute myocardial infarction rates and cardiovascular risk factors among patients with human immunodeficiency virus disease. J Clin Endrocrinol & Metab. 2007;92(7):2506–2512.
  • Mason JC, Libby P. Cardiovascular disease in patients with chronic inflammation: mechanisms underlying premature cardiovascular events in rheumatologic conditions. Eur Heart J. 2015;36(8):482–495.
  • Mahtta D, Gupta A, Ramsey DJ, et al. Autoimmune Rheumatic Diseases and Premature Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease: an Analysis From the VITAL Registry. Am J Med. 2020;133(12):1424–1432.
  • Solomon DH, Karlson EW, Rimm EB, et al. Cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in women diagnosed with rheumatoid arthritis. Circulation. 2003;107(9):1303–1307.
  • Kwon HS, Kim YS, Lee JM, et al. Causes, Risk Factors, and Clinical Outcomes of Stroke in Korean Young Adults: systemic Lupus Erythematosus is Associated with Unfavorable Outcomes. J Clin Neurol. 2020;16(4):605–611.
  • Krishnan E, Pandya BJ, Chung L, et al. Hyperuricemia and the risk for subclinical coronary atherosclerosis - data from a prospective observational cohort study. Arthritis Res Ther. 2011;13:2.
  • Lv S, Liu W, Zhou Y, et al. Hyperuricemia and severity of coronary artery disease: an observational study in adults 35 years of age and younger with acute coronary syndrome. Cardiol J. 2019;26(3):275–282.
  • Tardif JC, Kouz S, Waters DD, et al. Efficacy and Safety of Low-Dose Colchicine after Myocardial Infarction. N Engl J Med. 2019;381(26):2497–2505.
  • Agarwala A, Michos ED, Samad Z, et al. The Use of Sex-Specific Factors in the Assessment of Women’s Cardiovascular Risk. Circulation. 2020;141(7):592–599.
  • Honigberg MC, Zekavat SM, Aragam K, et al. Long-term cardiovascular risk in women with hypertension during pregnancy. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2019;74(22):2743–2754.
  • Wallis AB, Saftlas AF, Hsia J, et al. Secular trends in the rates of preeclampsia, eclampsia, and gestational hypertension, United States, 1987–2004. Am J Hypertens. 2008;21(5):521–526.
  • Arnaout R, Nah G, Marcus G, et al. Pregnancy complications and premature cardiovascular events among 1.6 million California pregnancies. Open Heart. 2019;6:1.
  • Grandi SM, Filion KB, Yoon S, et al. Cardiovascular Disease-Related Morbidity and Mortality in Women With a History of Pregnancy Complications. Circulation. 2019;139(8):1069–1079.
  • Ray JG, Vermeulen MJ, Schull MJ, et al. Cardiovascular health after maternal placental syndromes (CHAMPS): population-based retrospective cohort study. Lancet. 2005;366(9499):1797–1803.
  • Redman CW, Sargent IL. Latest advances in understanding preeclampsia. Science. 2005;308(5728):1592–1594.
  • Rana S, Lemoine E, Granger JP, et al. Preeclampsia: pathophysiology, Challenges, and Perspectives. Circ Res. 2019;124(7):1094–1112.
  • Gbd IBDC. The global, regional, and national burden of inflammatory bowel disease in 195 countries and territories, 1990–2017: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017. Lancet Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2020;5(1):17–30.
  • Ekbom A, Helmick C, Zack M, et al. The epidemiology of inflammatory bowel disease: a large, population-based study in Sweden. Gastroenterology. 1991;100(2):350–358.
  • Bernstein CN, Wajda A, Svenson LW, et al. The epidemiology of inflammatory bowel disease in Canada: a population-based study. Am J Gastroenterol. 2006;101(7):1559–1568.
  • Feng W, Chen G, Cai D, et al. Inflammatory Bowel Disease and Risk of Ischemic Heart Disease: an Updated Meta-Analysis of Cohort Studies. J Am Heart Assoc. 2017;6:8.
  • Sun HH, Tian F. Inflammatory bowel disease and cardiovascular disease incidence and mortality: a meta-analysis. Eur J Prev Cardiol. 2018;25(15):1623–1631.
  • Kristensen SL, Ahlehoff O, Lindhardsen J, et al. Disease activity in inflammatory bowel disease is associated with increased risk of myocardial infarction, stroke and cardiovascular death–a Danish nationwide cohort study. PLoS One. 2013;8(2):e56944.
  • Cainzos-Achirica M, Glassner K, Zawahir HS, et al. Inflammatory Bowel Disease and Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2020;76(24):2895–2905.
  • Sinh P, Cross R. Cardiovascular Risk Assessment and Impact of Medications on Cardiovascular Disease in Inflammatory Bowel Disease. Inflamm Bowel Dis. 2020.
  • Yarur AJ, Deshpande AR, Pechman DM, et al. Inflammatory bowel disease is associated with an increased incidence of cardiovascular events. Am J Gastroenterol. 2011;106(4):741–747.
  • Afshar M, Pilote L, Dufresne L, et al. Lipoprotein(a) Interactions With Low-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol and Other Cardiovascular Risk Factors in Premature Acute Coronary Syndrome (ACS). J Am Heart Assoc. 2016;5:4.
  • Mai CT, Isenburg JL, Canfield MA, et al. National population‐based estimates for major birth defects, 2010–2014. Birth Defects Res. 2019;111(18):1420–1435.
  • Brown ML, Burkhart HM, Connolly HM, et al. Coarctation of the aorta: lifelong surveillance is mandatory following surgical repair. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2013;62(11):1020–1025.
  • Pickard SS, Gauvreau K, Gurvitz M, et al. A National Population-based Study of Adults With Coronary Artery Disease and Coarctation of the Aorta. Am J Cardiol. 2018;122(12):2120–2124.
  • Brili S, Tousoulis D, Antoniades C, et al. Evidence of vascular dysfunction in young patients with successfully repaired coarctation of aorta. Atherosclerosis. 2005;182(1):97–103.
  • Gardiner HM, Celermajer DS, Sorensen KE, et al. Arterial reactivity is significantly impaired in normotensive young adults after successful repair of aortic coarctation in childhood. Circulation. 1994;89(4):1745–1750.
  • Egbe AC, Rihal CS, Thomas A, et al. Coronary Artery Disease in Adults With Coarctation of Aorta: incidence, Risk Factors, and Outcomes. J Am Heart Assoc. 2019;8(12):e012056.
  • Abbasi SH, Kassaian SE, Sadeghian S, et al. Factors Associated with Depressive Symptoms in Young Adults with Coronary Artery Disease: tehran Heart Center’s Premature Coronary Atherosclerosis Cohort (THC-PAC) Study. Iran J Psychiatry. 2016;11(4):214–223.
  • Abbasi SH, Kassaian SE, Sadeghian S, et al. Factors Associated with Anxiety in Premature Coronary Artery Disease Patients: THC-PAC Study. Acta Med Iran. 2016;54(4):261–269.
  • Wentworth BA, Stein MB, Redwine LS, et al. Post-traumatic stress disorder: a fast track to premature cardiovascular disease. Cardiol Rev. 2013;21(1):16–22.
  • Hall MH, Brindle RC, Buysse DJ. Sleep and cardiovascular disease: emerging opportunities for psychology. Am Psychol. 2018;73(8):994–1006.
  • Yang Q, Cogswell ME, Flanders WD, et al. Trends in cardiovascular health metrics and associations with all-cause and CVD mortality among US adults. JAMA. 2012;307(12):1273–1283.
  • Artinian NT, Fletcher GF, Mozaffarian D, et al. Interventions to promote physical activity and dietary lifestyle changes for cardiovascular risk factor reduction in adults: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2010;122(4):406–441.
  • Gorelick PB, Furie KL, Iadecola C, et al. Defining Optimal Brain Health in Adults: a Presidential Advisory From the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke. 2017;48(10):e284–e303.
  • Strath SJ, Kaminsky LA, Ainsworth BE, et al. Guide to the assessment of physical activity: clinical and research applications: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2013;128(20):2259–2279.
  • Arnett DK, Blumenthal RS, Albert MA, et al. 2019 ACC/AHA Guideline on the Primary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease: a Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines. Circulation. 2019;140(11):e596–e646.
  • Nadir MA, Struthers AD. Family history of premature coronary heart disease and risk prediction. Heart. 2011;97(8):684.
  • Blankstein R, Singh A. Cholesterol guidelines: a missed opportunity for young adults; 2020.
  • Akosah KO, Schaper A, Cogbill C, et al. Preventing myocardial infarction in the young adult in the first place: how do the National Cholesterol Education Panel III guidelines perform. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003;41(9):1475–1479.
  • Navar-Boggan AM, Peterson ED, D’agostino RB, et al. Using age- and sex-specific risk thresholds to guide statin therapy: one size may not fit all. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2015;65(16):1633–1639.
  • Zeitouni M, Nanna MG, Sun JL, et al. Performance of Guideline Recommendations for Prevention of Myocardial Infarction in Young Adults. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2020;76(6):653–664.
  • Reynolds TM, Twomey P, Wierzbicki AS. Accuracy of cardiovascular risk estimation for primary prevention in patients without diabetes. J Cardiovasc Risk. 2002;9(4):183–190.
  • Pashkow FJ. The prudent person’s paradox. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003;41(9):1480–1481.
  • Gooding HC, Ning H, Gillman MW, et al. Application of a Lifestyle-Based Tool to Estimate Premature Cardiovascular Disease Events in Young Adults: the Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults (CARDIA) Study. JAMA Intern Med. 2017;177(9):1354–1360.
  • Joseph P, Yusuf S, Lee SF, et al. Prognostic validation of a non-laboratory and a laboratory based cardiovascular disease risk score in multiple regions of the world. Heart. 2018;104(7):581–587.
  • Fernández-Alvira JM, Fuster V, Pocock S, et al. Predicting Subclinical Atherosclerosis in Low-Risk Individuals: ideal Cardiovascular Health Score and Fuster-BEWAT Score. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2017;70(20):2463–2473.
  • Patel J, Al Rifai M, Blaha MJ, et al. Coronary Artery Calcium Improves Risk Assessment in Adults With a Family History of Premature Coronary Heart Disease: results From Multiethnic Study of Atherosclerosis. Circ Cardiovasc Imaging. 2015;8(6):e003186.
  • Juonala M, Viikari JSA, Rasanen LA, et al. Young adults with family history of coronary heart disease have increased arterial vulnerability to metabolic risk factors - The cardiovascular risk in Young Finns study. Arteriosclerosis Thrombosis and Vascular Surgery. 2006;26(6):1376–1382.
  • Jubran A, Zetser A, Zafrir B. Lipoprotein(a) screening in young and middle-aged patients presenting with acute coronary syndrome. Cardiol J. 2019;26(5):511–518.
  • Hoogeveen RC, Ballantyne CM. Residual Cardiovascular Risk at Low LDL: remnants, Lipoprotein(a), and Inflammation. Clin Chem. 2020.
  • Aguilar D, Sun C, Hoogeveen RC, et al. Levels and Change in Galectin-3 and Association With Cardiovascular Events: the ARIC Study. J Am Heart Assoc. 2020;9(13):e015405.
  • Martínez PJ, Baldán-Martín M, López JA, et al. Identification of six cardiovascular risk biomarkers in the young population: a promising tool for early prevention. Atherosclerosis. 2019;28267–28274.
  • Heller DJ, Coxson PG, Penko J, et al. Evaluating the Impact and Cost-Effectiveness of Statin Use Guidelines for Primary Prevention of Coronary Heart Disease and Stroke. Circulation. 2017;136(12):1087–1098.
  • Grundy SM, Stone NJ, Bailey AL, et al. 2018 AHA/ACC/AACVPR/AAPA/ABC/ACPM/ADA/AGS/APhA/ASPC/NLA/PCNA Guideline on the Management of Blood Cholesterol: a Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2019;73(24):e285–e350.
  • Nakamura H, Arakawa K, Itakura H, et al. Primary prevention of cardiovascular disease with pravastatin in Japan (MEGA Study): a prospective randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2006;368(9542):1155–1163.
  • Downs JR, Clearfield M, Weis S, et al. Primary prevention of acute coronary events with lovastatin in men and women with average cholesterol levels: results of AFCAPS/TexCAPS. Air Force/Texas Coronary Atherosclerosis Prevention Study. JAMA. 1615–1622;279(20):1998.
  • Ridker PM, Danielson E, Fonseca FAH, et al. Rosuvastatin to prevent vascular events in men and women with elevated C-reactive protein. N Engl J Med. 2008;359(21):2195–2207.
  • Yusuf S, Bosch J, Dagenais G, et al. Cholesterol Lowering in Intermediate-Risk Persons without Cardiovascular Disease. N Engl J Med. 2016;374(21):2021–2031.
  • Virani SS, Ballantyne CM. Low-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol: is 160 the New 190. Circulation. 2018;138(21):2326–2329.
  • Van Dongen MME, Aarnio K, Martinez-Majander N, et al. Use of statins after ischemic stroke in young adults and its association with long-term outcome. Stroke. 2019;50(12):3385–3392.
  • Rodriguez F, Maron DJ, Knowles JW, et al. Association Between Intensity of Statin Therapy and Mortality in Patients With Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease. JAMA Cardiol. 2017;2(1):47–54.
  • Mahtta D, Ramsey DJ, Al Rifai M, et al. Evaluation of Aspirin and Statin Therapy Use and Adherence in Patients With Premature Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease. JAMA Network Open. 2020;3(8):e2011051.
  • Dixon DL, Sharma G, Sandesara PB, et al. Therapeutic Inertia in Cardiovascular Disease Prevention: time to Move the Bar. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2019;74(13):1728–1731.
  • Gupta A, Wang Y, Spertus JA, et al. Trends in acute myocardial infarction in young patients and differences by sex and race, 2001 to 2010. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2014;64(4):337–345.
  • Nanna MG, Wang TY, Xiang Q, et al. Sex Differences in the Use of Statins in Community Practice. Circ Cardiovasc Qual Outcomes. 2019;12(8):e005562.
  • Newman CB, Preiss D, Tobert JA, et al. Statin safety and associated adverse events: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2019;39(2):e38–e81.
  • Jia X, Lee MT, Ramsey DJ, et al. Facility-Level Variation in Reported Statin-Associated Side Effects Among Patients with Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease-Perspective from the Veterans Affair Healthcare System. Cardiovasc Drugs Ther. 2021.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.