Central vestibular dysfunction: don’t forget vestibular rehabilitation

References

• Bisdorff AR, Staab JP, Newman-Toker DE. Overview of the international classification of vestibular disorders. Neurol clin. 2015;33(vii):541–550.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Brandt T, Dieterich M. The dizzy patient: don’t forget disorders of the central vestibular system. Nat Rev Neurol. 2017;13:352–362.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strupp M, Dlugaiczyk J, Ertl-Wagner BB, et al. Vestibular disorders. Dtsch Arztebl Int. 2020;117:300–310.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rainer S, Heiko R, and Thomas B, et al. Treatment of dizziness: an interdisciplinary update. Swiss Med Wkly. 2017;147:w14566.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Linde M, Mulleners WM, Chronicle EP, et al. Topiramate for the prophylaxis of episodic migraine in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;2013:Cd010610.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pamela MD, Janene MH, and Susan LW. Vestibular rehabilitation: advances in peripheral and central vestibular disorders. Curr Opin Neurol. 2018;32:137–144.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cawthorne T. Vestibular Injuries. Proc Royal Soc Med. 1946, 39:270–273.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cooksey FS. Rehabilitation in vestibular injuries. Proce Royal Soc Med. 1946, 39:273–278.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• McDonnell MN, Hillier SL. Vestibular rehabilitation for unilateral peripheral vestibular dysfunction. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;1:Cd005397.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hall CD, Herdman SJ, Whitney SL, et al. Vestibular rehabilitation for peripheral vestibular hypofunction: an evidence-based clinical practice guideline: from the American physical therapy association neurology section. J Neurol Phys Ther. 2016;40:124–155.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tramontano M, Russo V, Spitoni GF, et al. Efficacy of vestibular rehabilitation in patients with neurologic disorders: a systematic review. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2021;102:1379–1389.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gans RE. Vestibular rehabilitation: critical decision analysis. Seminars in Hearing . 2002;23:149–160.
   Google Scholar
• Han BI, Song HS, Kim JS. Vestibular rehabilitation therapy: review of indications, mechanisms, and key exercises. J Clin Neurol. 2011;7:184–196.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whitney SL, Sparto PJ, Furman JM. Vestibular rehabilitation and factors that can affect outcome. Semin Neurol. 2020;40:165–172.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dunlap PM, Holmberg JM, Whitney SL. Vestibular rehabilitation: advances in peripheral and central vestibular disorders. Curr Opin Neurol. 2019;32:137–144.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crane BT, Schubert MC. An adaptive vestibular rehabilitation technique. Laryngoscope. 2018;128:713–718.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whitney SL, Alghwiri AA, Alghadir A. An overview of vestibular rehabilitation. Handb Clin Neurol. 2016;137:187–205.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Alghadir AH, Iqbal ZA, Whitney SL. An update on vestibular physical therapy. J Chin Med Assoc. 2013;76:1–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kundakci B, Sultana A, Taylor AJ, et al. The effectiveness of exercise-based vestibular rehabilitation in adult patients with chronic dizziness: a systematic review. F1000Res. 2018;7:276.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ricci NA, Aratani MC, Doná F, et al. A systematic review about the effects of the vestibular rehabilitation in middle-age and older adults. Revista brasileira de fisioterapia (Sao Carlos (Sao Paulo, Brazil)). 2010;14:361–371.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wrisley DM, Sparto PJ, Whitney SL, et al. Cervicogenic dizziness: a review of diagnosis and treatment. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 2000;30:755–766.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shepard NT, Telian SA, Smith-Wheelock M, et al. Vestibular and balance rehabilitation therapy. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol. 1993;102:198–205.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jang DC, Shim HG, Kim SJ. Intrinsic plasticity of cerebellar purkinje cells contributes to motor memory consolidation. J Neurosci. 2020;40:4145–4157.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lacour M. Betahistine treatment in managing vertigo and improving vestibular compensation: clarification. J vestibul res equilib orientat. 2013;23:139–151.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alrwaily M, Whitney SL. Vestibular rehabilitation of older adults with dizziness. Otolaryngol Clin North Am. 2011;44:473–496, x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lacour M, Helmchen C, Vidal PP. Vestibular compensation: the neuro-otologist’s best friend. J Neurol. 2016;263(1):S54–64.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tjernström F, Zur O, Jahn K. Current concepts and future approaches to vestibular rehabilitation. J Neurol. 2016;263(1):S65–70.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pavlou M, Lingeswaran A, Davies RA, et al. Simulator based rehabilitation in refractory dizziness. J Neurol. 2004;251:983–995.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hall CD, Cox LC. The role of vestibular rehabilitation in the balance disorder patient. Otolaryngol Clin North Am. 2009;42:161–169, xi.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beraneck M, Idoux E. Reconsidering the role of neuronal intrinsic properties and neuromodulation in vestibular homeostasis. Front Neurol. 2012;3:25.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lambert FM, Malinvaud D, Gratacap M, et al. Restricted neural plasticity in vestibulospinal pathways after unilateral labyrinthectomy as the origin for scoliotic deformations. J Neurosci. 2013;33:6845–6856.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brandt T. Management of vestibular disorders. J Neurol. 2000;247:491–499.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Curthoys IS. Vestibular compensation and substitution. Curr Opin Neurol. 2000;13:27–30.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lacour M. Restoration of vestibular function: basic aspects and practical advances for rehabilitation. Curr Med Res Opin. 2006;22:1651–1659.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schubert MC, Migliaccio AA. New advances regarding adaptation of the vestibulo-ocular reflex. J Neurophysiol. 2019;122:644–658.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nelson AB, Krispel CM, Sekirnjak C, et al. Long-lasting increases in intrinsic excitability triggered by inhibition. Neuron. 2003;40:609–620.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nelson AB, Faulstich M, Moghadam S, et al. BK channels are required for multisensory plasticity in the oculomotor system. Neuron. 2017;93:211–220.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patten C, Horak FB, Krebs DE. Head and body center of gravity control strategies: adaptations following vestibular rehabilitation. Acta Otolaryngol. 2003;123:32–40.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schubert MC, Das V, Tusa RJ, et al. Cervico-ocular reflex in normal subjects and patients with unilateral vestibular hypofunction. Otol Neurotol. 2004;25:65–71.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jafarzadeh S, Pourbakht A, Bahrami E, et al. Effect of early vestibular rehabilitation on vertigo and unsteadiness in patients with acute and sub-acute head trauma. Iran J Otorhinolaryngol. 2018;30:85–90.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Herdman SJ, Hall CD, Schubert MC, et al. Recovery of dynamic visual acuity in bilateral vestibular hypofunction. Arch Otolaryngology Head Neck Surg. 2007;133:383–389.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Shumway-Cook A, Silver IF, LeMier M, et al. Effectiveness of a community-based multifactorial intervention on falls and fall risk factors in community-living older adults: a randomized, controlled trial. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2007;62:1420–1427.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levack WM, Taylor K, Siegert RJ, et al. Is goal planning in rehabilitation effective? A systematic review. Clin Rehabil. 2006;20:739–755.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duffau H. Brain plasticity: from pathophysiological mechanisms to therapeutic applications. J Clin Neurosci. 2006;13:885–897.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Horak FB. Postural compensation for vestibular loss and implications for rehabilitation. Restor Neurol Neurosci. 2010;28(1):57–68.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Telian SA, Shepard NT. Update on vestibular rehabilitation therapy. Otolaryngol Clin North Am. 1996;29:359–371.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Helm MR. Vestibulo-ocular reflex abnormalities in patients with migraine. Headache. 2005;45:332–336.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harno H, Hirvonen T, Kaunisto MA, et al. Subclinical vestibulocerebellar dysfunction in migraine with and without aura. Neurology. 2003;61:1748–1752.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Choi JY, Kim JS. Modulation of central nystagmus by vision, proprioception, and efference copy signals: a systematic evaluation. J Neurol. 2016;263:735–742.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Genzel D, Firzlaff U, Wiegrebe L, et al. Dependence of auditory spatial updating on vestibular, proprioceptive, and efference copy signals. J Neurophysiol. 2016;116:765–775.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Konrad HR. Clinical application of saccade-reflex testing in man. Laryngoscope. 1991;101:1293–1302.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ramat S, Leigh RJ, Zee DS, et al. What clinical disorders tell us about the neural control of saccadic eye movements. Brain. 2007;130:10–35.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Munoz DP, Everling S. Look away: the anti-saccade task and the voluntary control of eye movement. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2004;5:218–228.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ettinger U, Ffytche DH, Kumari V, et al. Decomposing the neural correlates of antisaccade eye movements using event-related FMRI. Cerebral cortex (New York, NY: 1991). 2008;18:1148–1159.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lynch G, Rex CS, Gall CM. Synaptic plasticity in early aging. Ageing Res Rev. 2006;5:255–280.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hallett PE. Primary and secondary saccades to goals defined by instructions. Vision Res. 1978;18:1279–1296.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coe BC, and Munoz DP. Mechanisms of saccade suppression revealed in the anti-saccade task. Philos Trans R Soc London, Ser B. 2017;372:20160192.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Massendari D, Lisi M, Collins T, et al. Memory-guided saccades show effect of a perceptual illusion whereas visually guided saccades do not. J Neurophysiol. 2018;119:62–72.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lempert T, Olesen J, Furman J, et al. Vestibular migraine: diagnostic criteria. J Vestibul Res-Equil. 2012;22:167–172.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Furman JM, Balaban CD. Vestibular migraine. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2015;1343:90–96.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• von Brevern M, Zeise D, Neuhauser H, et al. Acute migrainous vertigo: clinical and oculographic findings. Brain. 2005;128:365–374.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Furman JM, Marcus DA. Migraine and motion sensitivity. Continuum (Minneap Minn). 2012;18:1102–1117.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Krishnan PS, Carey JP. Vestibular migraine: clinical aspects and pathophysiology. Otolaryngol Clin North Am. 2022;55(3):531–547.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huang TC, Wang SJ, Kheradmand A. Vestibular migraine: an update on current understanding and future directions. Cephalalgia. 2020;40:107–121.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yan M, Guo X, Liu W, et al. Temporal patterns of vertigo and migraine in vestibular migraine. Front Neurosci. 2020;14:341.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dieterich M, Obermann M, Celebisoy N. Vestibular migraine: the most frequent entity of episodic vertigo. J Neurol. 2016;263(1):S82–89.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cho SJ, Kim BK, Kim BS, et al. Vestibular migraine in multicenter neurology clinics according to the appendix criteria in the third beta edition of the international classification of headache disorders. Cephalalgia. 2016;36:454–462.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Formeister EJ, Rizk HG, Kohn MA, et al. The epidemiology of vestibular migraine: a population-based survey study. Otol Neurotol. 2018;39(8):1037–1044.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Ombergen A, Van Rompaey V, Van de Heyning P, et al. Vestibular migraine in an otolaryngology clinic: prevalence, associated symptoms, and prophylactic medication effectiveness. Otol Neurotol. 2015;36:133–138.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lauritsen CG, Marmura MJ. Current treatment options: vestibular migraine. Curr Treat Options Neurol. 2017;19:38.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bisdorff Arjtai ND. Management of vestibular migraine. Ther Adv Neurol Disord . 2011;4:183–191.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• von Brevern M, Lempert T. Vestibular migraine: treatment and prognosis. Semin Neurol. 2020;40:83–86.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lipton RB, Bigal ME, Diamond M, et al. Migraine prevalence, disease burden, and the need for preventive therapy. Neurology. 2007;68:343–349.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baier B, Winkenwerder E, Dieterich M. “Vestibular migraine”: effects of prophylactic therapy with various drugs. A retrospective study. J Neurol. 2009;256:436–442.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salviz M, Yuce T, Acar H, et al. Propranolol and venlafaxine for vestibular migraine prophylaxis: a randomized controlled trial. Laryngoscope. 2016;126:169–174.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whitney SL, Wrisley DM, Brown KE, et al. Physical therapy for migraine-related vestibulopathy and vestibular dysfunction with history of migraine. Laryngoscope. 2000;110:1528–1534.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sugaya N, Arai M, Goto F. Is the headache in patients with vestibular migraine attenuated by vestibular rehabilitation? Front Neurol. 2017;8:124.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vitkovic J, Winoto A, Rance G, et al. Vestibular rehabilitation outcomes in patients with and without vestibular migraine. J Neurol. 2013;260:3039–3048.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee YY, Yang YP, Huang PI, et al. Exercise suppresses COX-2 pro-inflammatory pathway in vestibular migraine. Brain Res Bull. 2015;116:98–105.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alghadir AH, Anwer S. Effects of Vestibular rehabilitation in the management of a vestibular migraine: a review. Front Neurol. 2018;9:440.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Balaban CD. Migraine, vertigo and migrainous vertigo: links between vestibular and pain mechanisms. J vestibul res equilib orientat. 2011;21:315–321.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Furman JM, Marcus DA, Balaban CD. Vestibular migraine: clinical aspects and pathophysiology. Lancet Neurol. 2013;12:706–715.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ranalli P. An overview of central vertigo disorders. Adv Otorhinolaryngol. 2019;82:127–133.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Furman JM, Balaban CD, Jacob RG, et al. Migraine-anxiety related dizziness (MARD): a new disorder? J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2005;76:1–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jeong SH, Oh SY, Kim HJ, et al. Vestibular dysfunction in migraine: effects of associated vertigo and motion sickness. J Neurol. 2010;257:905–912.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sauro KM, Becker WJ. The stress and migraine interaction. Headache. 2009;49:1378–1386.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lempert T, von Brevern M. Vestibular Migraine. Neurol Clin. 2019;37:695–706.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Vugt VA, van der Horst HE, Payne RA, et al. Chronic vertigo: treat with exercise, not drugs. BMJ (Clinical research ed). 2017;358:j3727.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Treleaven J, Jull G, Grip H. Head eye co-ordination and gaze stability in subjects with persistent whiplash associated disorders. Manual ther. 2011;16:252–257.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lewis RF, Priesol AJ, Nicoucar K, et al. Dynamic tilt thresholds are reduced in vestibular migraine. J vestibul res equilib orientat. 2011;21:323–330.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• King S, Wang J, Priesol AJ, et al. Central integration of canal and otolith signals is abnormal in vestibular migraine. Front Neurol. 2014;5:233.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Russo A, Marcelli V, Esposito F, et al. Abnormal thalamic function in patients with vestibular migraine. Neurology. 2014;82:2120–2126.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Staab JP, Eckhardt-Henn A, Horii A, et al. Diagnostic criteria for persistent postural-perceptual dizziness (PPPD): consensus document of the committee for the classification of vestibular disorders of the bárány society. J vestibul res equilib orientat. 2017;27:191–208.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• The L. ICD-11. Lancet (London England). 2019;393:2275
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bronstein AM. Visual vertigo syndrome: clinical and posturography findings. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1995;59:472–476.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Staab JP, Ruckenstein MJ, Amsterdam JD. A prospective trial of sertraline for chronic subjective dizziness. Laryngoscope. 2004;114:1637–1641.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dieterich M, Staab JP, Brandt T. Functional (psychogenic) dizziness. Handb Clin Neurol. 2016;139:447–468.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jacob RG, Lilienfeld SO, and Furman JMR, et al. Panic disorder with vestibular dysfunction: further clinical observations and description of space and motion phobic stimuli. J anxiety disord . 1989;3:117–130.
   Google Scholar
• Popkirov S, Staab JP, Stone J. Persistent postural-perceptual dizziness (PPPD): a common, characteristic and treatable cause of chronic dizziness. Pract Neurol. 2018;18:5–13.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Staab JP. Persistent postural-perceptual dizziness. Semin Neurol. 2020;40:130–137.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Furman JM, Jacob RG. A clinical taxonomy of dizziness and anxiety in the otoneurological setting. J Anxiety Disord. 2001;15:9–26.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Molnár A, Maihoub S, Mavrogeni P, et al. Depression scores and quality of life of vertiginous patients, suffering from different vestibular disorders. Europ archiv oto-rhino-laryngol. 2022. DOI:10.1007/s00405-022-07366-y.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Popkirov S, Stone J, Holle-Lee D. Treatment of persistent postural-perceptual dizziness (PPPD) and related disorders. Curr Treat Options Neurol. 2018;20:50.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dieterich M, Staab JP. Functional dizziness: from phobic postural vertigo and chronic subjective dizziness to persistent postural-perceptual dizziness. Curr Opin Neurol. 2017;30:107–113.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morisod B, Mermod M, Maire R. Posturographic pattern of patients with chronic subjective dizziness before and after vestibular rehabilitation. J Vestibul Res-Equil. 2017;27:305–311.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thompson KJ, Goetting JC, Staab JP, et al. Retrospective review and telephone follow-up to evaluate a physical therapy protocol for treating persistent postural-perceptual dizziness: a pilot study. J vestibul res equilib orientat. 2015;25:97–103; quiz 103–104.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nada EH, Ibraheem OA, Hassaan MR. Vestibular rehabilitation therapy outcomes in patients with persistent postural-perceptual dizziness. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol. 2019;128:323–329.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Staab JP, Rohe DE, Eggers SD, et al. Anxious, introverted personality traits in patients with chronic subjective dizziness. J Psychosom Res. 2014;76:80–83.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chiarella G, Petrolo C, Riccelli R, et al. Chronic subjective dizziness: analysis of underlying personality factors. J vestibul res equilib orientat. 2016;26:403–408.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Söhsten E, Bittar RS, Staab JP. Posturographic profile of patients with persistent postural-perceptual dizziness on the sensory organization test. J vestibul res equilib orientat. 2016;26:319–326.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Adamec I, Juren Meaški S, Krbot Skorić M, et al. Persistent postural-perceptual dizziness: clinical and neurophysiological study. J Clin Neurosci. 2020;72:26–30.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salvatore N, Iole I, and Roberta R, et al. Reduced cortical folding in multi-modal vestibular regions in persistent postural perceptual dizziness. Brain Imaging Behav. 2019;13:798–809.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riccelli R, Passamonti L, Toschi N, et al. Altered insular and occipital responses to simulated vertical self-motion in patients with persistent postural-perceptual dizziness. Front Neurol. 2017;8:529.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jeffrey PS. Persistent postural-perceptual dizziness. Semin Neurol. 2020;40:130–137.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nielsen G, Stone J, Matthews A, et al. Physiotherapy for functional motor disorders: a consensus recommendation. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2015;86:1113–1119.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee JO, Lee ES, Kim JS, et al. Altered brain function in persistent postural perceptual dizziness: a study on resting state functional connectivity. Hum Brain Mapp. 2018;39:3340–3353.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li K, Si L, Cui B, et al. Altered intra- and inter-network functional connectivity in patients with persistent postural-perceptual dizziness. NeuroImage Clin. 2020;26:102216.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Staab JP, Ruckenstein MJ. Expanding the differential diagnosis of chronic dizziness. Arch Otolaryngology Head Neck Surg. 2007;133:170–176.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lucchinetti CF. Update on the international project on pathologic correlates in MS. Multiple sclerosis (Houndmills, Basingstoke, England). 2005;11:99–100
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Owens B. Multiple sclerosis. Nature. 2016;540:S1.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dobson R, Giovannoni G. Multiple sclerosis - a review. Eur J Neurol. 2019;26:27–40.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zeigelboim BS, Arruda WO, Mangabeira-Albernaz PL, et al. Vestibular findings in relapsing, remitting multiple sclerosis: a study of thirty patients. Int Tinnitus J. 2008;14:139–145.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Marrie RA, Cutter GR, Tyry T. Substantial burden of dizziness in multiple sclerosis. Mult Scler Relat Disord. 2013;2:21–28.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cattaneo D, Jonsdottir J. Sensory impairments in quiet standing in subjects with multiple sclerosis. Multiple sclerosis (Houndmills, Basingstoke, England). 2009;15:59–67
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cameron MH, Nilsagard Y. Balance, gait, and falls in multiple sclerosis. Handb Clin Neurol. 2018;159:237–250.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Walton C, King R, Rechtman L, et al. Rising prevalence of multiple sclerosis worldwide: Insights from the Atlas of MS, third edition. Multiple sclerosis (Houndmills, Basingstoke, England). 2020;26:1816–1821.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Belbasis L, Bellou V, Evangelou E, et al. Environmental risk factors and multiple sclerosis: an umbrella review of systematic reviews and meta-analyses. Lancet Neurol. 2015;14:263–273.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thormann A, Sørensen PS, Koch-Henriksen N, et al. Comorbidity in multiple sclerosis is associated with diagnostic delays and increased mortality. Neurology. 2017;89:1668–1675.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• He A, Merkel B, Brown JWL, et al. Timing of high-efficacy therapy for multiple sclerosis: a retrospective observational cohort study. Lancet Neurol. 2020;19:307–316.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yamout B, Sahraian M, Bohlega S, et al. Consensus recommendations for the diagnosis and treatment of multiple sclerosis: 2019 revisions to the MENACTRIMS guidelines. Mult Scler Relat Disord. 2020;37:101459.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sosnoff JJ, Finlayson M, McAuley E, et al. Home-based exercise program and fall-risk reduction in older adults with multiple sclerosis: phase 1 randomized controlled trial. Clin Rehabil. 2014;28:254–263.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• García-Muñoz C, Cortés-Vega MD, and Heredia-Rizo AM, et al. Effectiveness of vestibular training for balance and dizziness rehabilitation in people with multiple sclerosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Clin Med. 2020;9: 590 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tramontano M, Grasso MG, Soldi S, et al. Cerebellar intermittent theta-burst stimulation combined with vestibular rehabilitation improves gait and balance in patients with multiple sclerosis: a preliminary double-blind randomized controlled trial. Cerebellum (London, England). 2020;19:897–901.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• García-Muñoz C, Cortés-Vega MD, Hernández-Rodríguez JC, et al. Immersive virtual reality and vestibular rehabilitation in multiple sclerosis: case report. JMIR Serious Games. 2022;10:e31020.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kutz JW Jr. The dizzy patient. Med Clin North Am. 2010;94:989–1002.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doty RL, MacGillivray MR, Talab H, et al. Balance in multiple sclerosis: relationship to central brain regions. Exp Brain Res. 2018;236:2739–2750.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fling BW, Dutta GG, Schlueter H, et al. Associations between proprioceptive neural pathway structural connectivity and balance in people with multiple sclerosis. Front Hum Neurosci. 2014;8:814.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prosperini L, Kouleridou A, Petsas N, et al. The relationship between infratentorial lesions, balance deficit and accidental falls in multiple sclerosis. J Neurol Sci. 2011;304:55–60.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hebert JR, Corboy JR. The association between multiple sclerosis-related fatigue and balance as a function of central sensory integration. Gait Posture. 2013;38(1):37–42.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Romberg A, Virtanen A, Ruutiainen J, et al. Effects of a 6-month exercise program on patients with multiple sclerosis: a randomized study. Neurology. 2004;63:2034–2038.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hebert JR, Corboy JR, Vollmer T, et al. Efficacy of balance and eye-movement exercises for persons with multiple sclerosis (BEEMS). Neurology. 2018;90:e797–e807.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gandolfi M, Munari D, Geroin C, et al. Sensory integration balance training in patients with multiple sclerosis: a randomized, controlled trial. Multiple sclerosis (Houndmills, Basingstoke, England). 2015;21:1453–1462.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang S, Xu W, Zhu Y, et al. Impaired multisensory integration predisposes the elderly people to fall: a systematic review. Front Neurosci. 2020;14:411.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cornelio P, Velasco C, Obrist M. Multisensory integration as per technological advances: a review. Front Neurosci. 2021;15:652611.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pompa A, Morone G, Iosa M, et al. Does robot-assisted gait training improve ambulation in highly disabled multiple sclerosis people? A pilot randomized control trial. Multiple sclerosis (Houndmills, Basingstoke, England). 2017;23:696–703.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brichetto G, Piccardo E, Pedullà L, et al. Tailored balance exercises on people with multiple sclerosis: a pilot randomized, controlled study. 2015;21. Basingstoke England: Multiple sclerosis (Houndmills 1055–1063.
   Google Scholar
• Hebert JR, Corboy JR, Manago MM, et al. Effects of vestibular rehabilitation on multiple sclerosis-related fatigue and upright postural control: a randomized controlled trial. Phys Ther. 2011;91:1166–1183.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edlow JA, Newman-Toker DE, Savitz SI. Diagnosis and initial management of cerebellar infarction. Lancet Neurol. 2008;7:951–964.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim WS, Jung SH, Oh MK, et al. Effect of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation over the cerebellum on patients with ataxia after posterior circulation stroke: a pilot study. J Rehabil Med. 2014;46:418–423.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maihoub S, Molnár A, Tamás L, et al. The diagnosis of central vestibular disorders based on the complementary examination of the vestibulospinal reflex. J Otol. 2022;17:1–4.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kerber KA, Brown DL, Lisabeth LD, et al. Stroke among patients with dizziness, vertigo, and imbalance in the emergency department: a population-based study. Stroke. 2006;37:2484–2487.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Molnár A, Maihoub S, Gáborján A, et al. Intratympanic gentamycine for Ménière’s disease: is there a selective vestibulotoxic effect? European archives of oto-rhino-laryngology: official journal of the European Federation of Oto-rhino-laryngological societies (EUFOS): affiliated with the German society for oto-rhino-laryngology. Head Neck Surg. 2020;277:1949–1954.
   Google Scholar
• Kim HA, Yi HA, Lee H. Failure of fixation suppression of spontaneous nystagmus in cerebellar infarction: frequency, pattern, and a possible structure. Cerebellum (London, England). 2016;15:182–189.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mizutani K, Sonoda S, Hayashi N, et al. Analysis of protein expression profile in the cerebellum of cerebral infarction rats after treadmill training. Am J Phys Med Rehabil. 2010;89:107–114.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bruun M, Højgaard JL, Kondziella D. Acute vertigo of neurological origin. Ugeskr Laeger. 2013;175:2709–2711.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bonan IV, Colle FM, Guichard JP, et al. Reliance on visual information after stroke. Part I: balance on dynamic posturography. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2004;85:268–273.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yelnik AP, Le Breton F, Colle FM, et al. Rehabilitation of balance after stroke with multisensorial training: a single-blind randomized controlled study. Neurorehabil Neural Repair. 2008;22:468–476.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whitney SL, Alghadir AH, Anwer S. Recent evidence about the effectiveness of vestibular rehabilitation. Curr Treat Options Neurol. 2016;18:13.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aspinwall LG, Tedeschi RG. The value of positive psychology for health psychology: progress and pitfalls in examining the relation of positive phenomena to health. Ann Behav Med. 2010;39:4–15.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khan S, Chang R. Anatomy of the vestibular system: a review. NeuroRehabilitation. 2013;32:437–443.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Todd CJ, Hubner PP, Hubner P, et al. StableEyes-a portable vestibular rehabilitation device. IEEE Trans Neural Syst Rehabil Eng. 2018;26:1223–1232.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saki N, Bayat A, Nikakhlagh S, et al. Vestibular rehabilitation therapy in combination with transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) for treatment of chronic vestibular dysfunction in the elderly: a double-blind randomized controlled trial. Braz J Otorhinolaryngol. 2020. DOI:10.1016/j.bjorl.2020.11.004.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Simon C, Bolton DAE, Kennedy NC, et al. Challenges and opportunities for the future of brain-computer interface in neurorehabilitation. Front Neurosci. 2021;15:699428.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar