856
Views
8
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Systematic review

Harm related to recreational ketamine use and its relevance for the clinical use of ketamine. A systematic review and comparison study

ORCID Icon &
Pages 83-94 | Received 31 Mar 2021, Accepted 25 Jun 2021, Published online: 01 Jul 2021

References

  • Taylor P, Ingwersen W. Importance of ketamine. Vet Rec. 2016;178(11):271.
  • WHO. Ketamine (INN). Update Review Report. Expert Committee on Drug Dependence. Thirty-seventh Meeting. Geneva, Switzerland 2015. Available from: https://www.who.int/medicines/access/controlled-substances/6_1_Ketamine_Update_Review.pdf
  • Pribish A, Wood N, Kalava A. A review of nonanesthetic uses of ketamine. Anesthesiol Res Pract. 2020;2020:5798285.
  • Alqaysum ZA, Hakami AH, Qussadi AM, et al. Ketamine versus standard opioid treatment for acute pain in the emergency department: systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Med Health Sci Res. 2021;11:1.
  • Bell RF, Eccleston C, Kalso EA. Ketamine as an adjuvant to opioids for cancer pain. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017;6(6):Cd003351.
  • Corriger A, Pickering G. Ketamine and depression: a narrative review. Drug Des Devel Ther. 2019;13:3051–3067.
  • Kryst J, Kawalec P, Mitoraj AM, et al. Efficacy of single and repeated administration of ketamine in unipolar and bipolar depression: a meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. Pharmacol Rep. 2020;72(3):543–562.
  • Fava M, Freeman MP, Flynn M, et al. Double-blind, placebo-controlled, dose-ranging trial of intravenous ketamine as adjunctive therapy in treatment-resistant depression (TRD). Mol Psychiatry. 2020;25(7):1592–1603.
  • Feder A, Rutter SB, Schiller D, et al. The emergence of ketamine as a novel treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder. Adv Pharmacol. 2020;89:261–286.
  • Wilkinson ST, Ballard ED, Bloch MH, et al. The effect of a single dose of intravenous ketamine on suicidal ideation: a systematic review and individual participant data meta-analysis. Am J Psychiatry. 2018;175(2):150–158.
  • Daly EJ, Singh JB, Fedgchin M, et al. Efficacy and safety of intranasal esketamine adjunctive to oral antidepressant therapy in treatment-resistant depression: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Psychiatry. 2018;75(2):139–148.
  • Jones JL, Mateus CF, Malcolm RJ, et al. Efficacy of ketamine in the treatment of substance use disorders: a systematic review. Front Psychiatry. 2018;9:277.
  • McIntyre RS, Carvalho IP, Lui LMW, et al. The effect of intravenous, intranasal, and oral ketamine in mood disorders: a meta-analysis. J Affect Disord. 2020;276:576–584.
  • Siegel AN, Di Vincenzo JD, Brietzke E, et al. Antisuicidal and antidepressant effects of ketamine and esketamine in patients with baseline suicidality: a systematic review. J Psychiatr Res. 2021;137:426–436.
  • Di Vincenzo JD, Siegel A, Lipsitz O, et al. The effectiveness, safety and tolerability of ketamine for depression in adolescents and older adults: a systematic review. J Psychiatr Res. 2021;137:232–241.
  • FDA (Food and Drug Administration). FDA approves new nasal spray medication for treatment-resistant depression; available only at a certified doctor’s office or clinic 2019. [cited 2021 Mar 31]. Available form:https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-approves-new-nasal-spray-medication-treatment-resistant-depression-available-only-certified
  • EMA. European Medicines Agency (EMA). Spravato 2020. Retrieved from https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/spravato
  • EMCDDA. European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA). European Drug Report 2019: trends and Developments, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg 2019. Available form:https://www.emcdda.europa.eu/system/files/publications/11364/20191724_TDAT19001ENN_PDF.pdf
  • Johnston LD, Miech RA, O’Malley PM, et al. Monitoring the future. National survey results on drug use, 1975–2019. 2019 Overview. Key findings on adolescent drug use 2020. Available form: https://cdn.ymaws.com/www.fadaa.org/resource/resmgr/files/resource_center/mtf-overview2019.pdf
  • Li JH, Vicknasingam B, Cheung YW, et al. To use or not to use: an update on licit and illicit ketamine use. Subst Abuse Rehabil. 2011;2:11–20.
  • Ho RC, Zhang MW. Ketamine as a rapid antidepressant: the debate and implications. BJPsych Advances. 2016;22(4):222–233.
  • Palamar JJ, Salomone A, Rutherford C, et al. Extensive underreported exposure to ketamine among electronic dance music party attendees. J Gen Intern Med. 2021;36(1):235–237.
  • Singh I, Morgan C, Curran V, et al. Ketamine treatment for depression: opportunities for clinical innovation and ethical foresight. Lancet Psychiatry. 2017;4(5):419–426.
  • Short B, Fong J, Galvez V, et al. Side-effects associated with ketamine use in depression: a systematic review. Lancet Psychiatry. 2018;5(1):65–78.
  • Morgan CJ, Curran HV. Ketamine use: a review. Addiction. 2012;107(1):27–38.
  • Orhurhu VJ, Vashisht R, Claus LE, et al. Ketamine Toxicity. StatPearls. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing. Copyright © 2021, StatPearls Publishing LLC; 2021.
  • Wei YB, Yang JR, Yin Z, et al. Genitourinary toxicity of ketamine. Hong Kong Med J. 2013;19(4):341–348.
  • Sassano-Higgins S, Baron D, Juarez G, et al. A review of ketamine abuse and diversion. Depress Anxiety. 2016;33(8):718–727.
  • Ng J, Lui LMW, Rosenblat JD, et al. Ketamine-induced urological toxicity. potential mechanisms and translation for adults with mood disorders receiving ketamine treatment. Psychopharmacology (Berl); 2021 Apr; 238(4):917–926.
  • Bokor G, Anderson PD. Ketamine: an update on its abuse. J Pharm Pract. 2014;27(6):582–586.
  • Morgan CJ, Rees H, Curran HV. Attentional bias to incentive stimuli in frequent ketamine users. Psychol Med. 2008;38(9):1331–1340.
  • Winstock AR, Mitcheson L, Gillatt DA, et al. The prevalence and natural history of urinary symptoms among recreational ketamine users. BJU Int. 2012;110(11):1762–1766.
  • Morgan CJ, Muetzelfeldt L, Curran HV. Consequences of chronic ketamine self-administration upon neurocognitive function and psychological wellbeing: a 1-year longitudinal study. Addiction. 2010;105(1):121–133.
  • Zhu W, Ding Z, Zhang Y, et al. Risks associated with misuse of ketamine as a rapid-acting antidepressant. Neurosci Bull. 2016;32(6):557–564.
  • Liu Y, Lin D, Wu B, et al. Ketamine abuse potential and use disorder. Brain Res Bull. 2016;126(Pt 1):68–73.
  • Pérez-Esparza R, Kobayashi-Romero LF, García-Mendoza AM, et al. Promises and concerns regarding the use of ketamine and esketamine in the treatment of depression. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2019;140(2):182–183.
  • Rasmussen KG. Has psychiatry tamed the “ketamine tiger?” Considerations on its use for depression and anxiety. Prog Neuro Psychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2016;64:218–224.
  • Zhang MW, Harris KM, Ho RC. Is off-label repeat prescription of ketamine as a rapid antidepressant safe? Controversies, ethical concerns, and legal implications. BMC Med Ethics. 2016;17(1):4.
  • Zhang MW, Ho R. Critical appraisal of existing ketamine trials: existing limitations and limited applicability for treatment. Am J Psychiatry. 2016;173(4):431.
  • Zhang MW, Ho RC. Controversies of the Effect of Ketamine on Cognition. Front Psychiatry. 2016;7:47.
  • McIntyre RS, Rosenblat JD, Nemeroff CB, et al. Synthesizing the evidence for ketamine and esketamine in treatment-resistant depression: an international expert opinion on the available evidence and implementation. Am J Psychiatry. 2021;178(5):383–399.
  • Na KS, Kim YK. Increased use of ketamine for the treatment of depression: benefits and concerns. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2021;104:110060.
  • Rosenblat JD, Carvalho AF, Li M, et al. Oral ketamine for depression: a systematic review. J Clin Psychiatry. 2019;80(3):3.
  • Wang LJ, Chen CK, Lin SK, et al. Cognitive profile of ketamine-dependent patients compared with methamphetamine-dependent patients and healthy controls. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2018;235(7):2113–2121.
  • Ke X, Ding Y, Xu K, et al. The profile of cognitive impairments in chronic ketamine users. Psychiatry Res. 2018;266:124–131.
  • Zeng H, Su D, Jiang X, et al. The similarities and differences in impulsivity and cognitive ability among ketamine, methadone, and non-drug users. Psychiatry Res. 2016;243:109–114.
  • Zhang C, Tang WK, Liang HJ, et al. Other drug use does not impact cognitive impairments in chronic ketamine users. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2018;186:1–8.
  • Zhang C, Xu Y, Zhang B, et al. Cognitive impairment in chronic ketamine abusers. Psychiatry Res. 2020;291:113206.
  • Liao Y, Tang J, Corlett PR, et al. Reduced dorsal prefrontal gray matter after chronic ketamine use. Biol Psychiatry. 2011;69(1):42–48.
  • Liang HJ, Lau CG, Tang A, et al. Cognitive impairments in poly-drug ketamine users. Addict Behav. 2013;38(11):2661–2666.
  • Liang HJ, Lau CG, Tang KL, et al. Are sexes affected differently by ketamine? An exploratory study in ketamine users. Subst Use Misuse. 2014;49(4):395–404.
  • Tang WK, Liang HJ, Lau CG, et al. Relationship between cognitive impairment and depressive symptoms in current ketamine users. J Stud Alcohol Drugs. 2013;74(3):460–468.
  • Tang WK, Lau CG, Ungvari GS, et al. Recovery of cognitive functioning following abstinence from ketamine. Addict Behav. 2019;99:106081.
  • Morgan CJ, Muetzelfeldt L, Curran HV. Ketamine use, cognition and psychological wellbeing: a comparison of frequent, infrequent and ex-users with polydrug and non-using controls. Addiction. 2009;104(1):77–87.
  • Tang J, Liao Y, He H, et al. Sleeping problems in Chinese illicit drug dependent subjects. BMC Psychiatry. 2015;15(1):28.
  • Morgan CJ, Duffin S, Hunt S, et al. Neurocognitive function and schizophrenia-proneness in individuals dependent on ketamine, on high potency cannabis (‘skunk’) or on cocaine. Pharmacopsychiatry. 2012;45(7):269–274.
  • González-Sáiz F, Domingo-Salvany A, Barrio G, et al. Severity of dependence scale as a diagnostic tool for heroin and cocaine dependence. Eur Addict Res. 2009;15(2):87–93.
  • Morgan CJ, Huddy V, Lipton M, et al. Is persistent ketamine use a valid model of the cognitive and oculomotor deficits in schizophrenia? Biol Psychiatry. 2009;65(12):1099–1102.
  • Liao Y, Tang J, Ma M, et al. Frontal white matter abnormalities following chronic ketamine use: a diffusion tensor imaging study. Brain. 2010;133(Pt 7):2115–2122.
  • Liao Y, Tang J, Fornito A, et al. Alterations in regional homogeneity of resting-state brain activity in ketamine addicts. Neurosci Lett. 2012;522(1):36–40.
  • Liao Y, Tang J, Liu J, et al. Decreased thalamocortical connectivity in chronic ketamine users. PLoS One. 2016;11(12):e0167381.
  • Hung CC, Zhang S, Chen CM, et al. Striatal functional connectivity in chronic ketamine users: a pilot study. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 2020;46(1):31–43.
  • Hung CC, Liu YH, Huang CC, et al. Effects of early ketamine exposure on cerebral gray matter volume and functional connectivity. Sci Rep. 2020;10(1):15488.
  • Li CR, Zhang S, Hung CC, et al. Depression in chronic ketamine users: sex differences and neural bases. Psychiatry Res Neuroimaging. 2017;269:1–8.
  • Narendran R, Frankle WG, Keefe R, et al. Altered prefrontal dopaminergic function in chronic recreational ketamine users. Am J Psychiatry. 2005;162(12):2352–2359.
  • Liu SYW, Ng SKK, Tam YH, et al. Clinical pattern and prevalence of upper gastrointestinal toxicity in patients abusing ketamine. J Dig Dis. 2017;18(9):504–510.
  • Liu W, Wu W, Wei Y, et al. Epidemiologic characteristics and risk factors in patients with ketamine-associated lower urinary tract symptoms accompanied by urinary tract infection: a cross-sectional study. Medicine (Baltimore). 2019;98(23):e15943.
  • Rodrigues NB, Siegel A, Lipsitz O, et al. Effectiveness of intravenous ketamine in mood disorder patients with a history of neurostimulation. CNS Spectr 2020 1–7. doi:https://doi.org/10.1017/S1092852920002187
  • McIntyre RS, Lipsitz O, Rodrigues NB, et al. The effectiveness of ketamine on anxiety, irritability, and agitation: implications for treating mixed features in adults with major depressive or bipolar disorder. Bipolar Disord. 2020;22(8):831–840.
  • Reich DL, Silvay G. Ketamine: an update on the first twenty-five years of clinical experience. Can J Anaesthesia. 1989;36(2):186–197.
  • Andrade C. Ketamine for depression, 4: in what dose, at what rate, by what route, for how long, and at what frequency? J Clin Psychiatry. 2017;78(7):e852–e7.
  • Balzer N, McLeod SL, Walsh C, et al. Low-dose ketamine for acute pain control in the emergency department: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Acad Emerg Med. 2021 Apr;28(4):444–454.
  • Green SM, Hummel CB, Wittlake WA, et al. What is the optimal dose of intramuscular ketamine for pediatric sedation? Acad Emerg Med. 1999;6(1):21–26.
  • Schoevers RA, Chaves TV, Balukova SM, et al. Oral ketamine for the treatment of pain and treatment-resistant depression†. Br J Psychiatry. 2016;208(2):108–113.
  • Craven R.Ketamine. Anaesthesia. 2007;62(Suppl 1):48–53.
  • Michelet D, Brasher C, Horlin AL, et al. Ketamine for chronic non-cancer pain: a meta-analysis and trial sequential analysis of randomized controlled trials. Eur J Pain. 2018;22(4):632–646.
  • Jafarinia M, Afarideh M, Tafakhori A, et al. Efficacy and safety of oral ketamine versus diclofenac to alleviate mild to moderate depression in chronic pain patients: a double-blind, randomized, controlled trial. J Affect Disord. 2016;204:1–8.
  • Arabzadeh S, Hakkikazazi E, Shahmansouri N, et al. Does oral administration of ketamine accelerate response to treatment in major depressive disorder? Results of a double-blind controlled trial. J Affect Disord. 2018;235:236–241.
  • Fedgchin M, Trivedi M, Daly EJ, et al. Efficacy and safety of fixed-dose esketamine nasal spray combined with a new oral antidepressant in treatment-resistant depression: results of a randomized, double-blind, active-controlled study (TRANSFORM-1). Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 2019;22(10):616–630.
  • Popova V, Daly EJ, Trivedi M, et al. Efficacy and safety of flexibly dosed esketamine nasal spray combined with a newly initiated oral antidepressant in treatment-resistant depression: a randomized double-blind active-controlled study. Am J Psychiatry. 2019;176(6):428–438.
  • McGirr A, Berlim MT, Bond DJ, et al. A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trials of ketamine in the rapid treatment of major depressive episodes. Psychol Med. 2015;45(4):693–704.
  • Canuso CM, Singh JB, Fedgchin M, et al. Efficacy and safety of intranasal esketamine for the rapid reduction of symptoms of depression and suicidality in patients at imminent risk for suicide: results of a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study. Am J Psychiatry. 2018;175(7):620–630.
  • Acevedo-Diaz EE, Cavanaugh GW, Greenstein D, et al. Comprehensive assessment of side effects associated with a single dose of ketamine in treatment-resistant depression. J Affect Disord. 2020;263:568–575.
  • Feifel D, Dadiomov D, Cl K. Safety of repeated administration of parenteral ketamine for depression. Pharmaceuticals (Basel. 2020;13(7):7.
  • Li CC, Wu ST, Cha TL, et al. A survey for ketamine abuse and its relation to the lower urinary tract symptoms in Taiwan. Sci Rep. 2019;9(1):7240.
  • Skeldon SC, Goldenberg SL. Urological complications of illicit drug use. Nat Rev Urol. 2014;11(3):169–177.
  • Bergman SA. Ketamine: review of its pharmacology and its use in pediatric anesthesia. Anesth Prog. 1999;46(1):10–20.
  • Abdallah CG, Adams TG, Kelmendi B, et al. Ketamine’s mechanism of action: a path to rapid-acting antidepressants. Depress Anxiety. 2016;33(8):689–697.
  • Kim M, Cho S, Lee JH. The effects of long-term ketamine treatment on cognitive function in complex regional pain syndrome: a preliminary study. Pain Med. 2016;17(8):1447–1451.
  • Chen LY, Chen CK, Chen CH, et al. Association of craving and depressive symptoms in ketamine-dependent patients undergoing withdrawal treatment. Am J Addict. 2020;29(1):43–50.
  • Gossop M, Darke S, Griffiths P, et al. The Severity of Dependence Scale (SDS): psychometric properties of the SDS in English and Australian samples of heroin, cocaine and amphetamine users. Addiction. 1995;90(5):607–614.
  • Uosukainen H, Tacke U, Winstock AR. Self-reported prevalence of dependence of MDMA compared to cocaine, mephedrone and ketamine among a sample of recreational poly-drug users. Int J Drug Policy. 2015;26(1):78–83.
  • De Luca MT, Meringolo M, Spagnolo PA, et al. The role of setting for ketamine abuse: clinical and preclinical evidence. Rev Neurosci. 2012;23(5–6):769–780.
  • Van Amsterdam J, Pierce M, Van Den Brink W. van den Brink W. Is Europe facing an emerging opioid crisis comparable to the US? Ther Drug Monit. 2021;43(1):42–51.
  • Pavarin RM, Marani S, Turino E. Ketamine abusers referring to emergency departments in northern Italy: a cross- sectional study. Ann Ist Super Sanita. 2019;55(4):338–344.
  • Palamar JJ, Acosta P, Le A, et al. Adverse drug-related effects among electronic dance music party attendees. Int J Drug Policy. 2019;73:81–87.
  • Fan N, Xu K, Ning Y, et al. Profiling the psychotic, depressive and anxiety symptoms in chronic ketamine users. Psychiatry Res. 2016;237:311–315.
  • Glue P, Medlicott NJ, Neehoff S, et al. Safety and efficacy of extended release ketamine tablets in patients with treatment-resistant depression and anxiety: open label pilot study. Ther Adv Psychopharmacol. 2020;10:2045125320922474.
  • Glue P, Russell B, Medlicott NJ. Influence of formulation and route of administration on ketamine’s safety and tolerability: systematic review. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2021;77(5):671–676.
  • Gao M, Rejaei D, Liu H. Ketamine use in current clinical practice. Acta Pharmacol Sin. 2016;37(7):865–872.
  • Villanueva-Perez VL, Cerdá-Olmedo G, Samper JM, et al. Oral ketamine for the treatment of type I complex regional pain syndrome. Pain Pract. 2007;7(1):39–43.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.