Appropriateness of psychopharmacological therapies to psychiatric diagnoses in persons with autism spectrum disorder with or without intellectual disabilities: a cross-sectional analytic study

References

• American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. 5th ed. Washington DC: APA; 2013.
   Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2021. [cited 2022 3 5]. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2021/p1202-autism.html
   Google Scholar
• Simeone JC, Ward AJ, Rotella P, et al. An evaluation of variation in published estimates of schizophrenia prevalence from 1990–2013: a systematic literature review. BMC Psychiatry. 2015;15:193.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bryson SE, Bradley EA, Thompson A, et al. Prevalence of autism among adolescents with intellectual disabilities. Can J Psychiatry. 2008;53(7):449–459.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tonnsen BL, Boan AD, Bradley CC, et al. Prevalence of autism spectrum disorders among children with intellectual disability. Am J Intellect Dev Disabil. 2016;121(6):487–500.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bakken TL, Helverschou SB, Eilertsen DE, et al. Psychiatric disorders in adolescents and adults with autism and intellectual disability: a representative study in one county in Norway. Res Dev Disabil. 2010;31(6):1669–1677.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghaziuddin M. Mental health aspects of autism and Asperger syndrome. Philadelphia: Jessica Kingsley Publishers; 2005.
   Google Scholar
• Hutton J, Goode S, Murphy M, et al. New-onset psychiatric disorders in individuals with autism. Autism. 2008;12(4):373–390.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morgan C, Roy M, Chance P. Psychiatric comorbidity and medication use in autism: a community survey. Psychiatric Bulletin. 2003;27(10):378–381.
   Google Scholar
• Tsakanikos E, Costello H, Holt G, et al. Psychopathology in adults with autism and intellectual disability. J Autism Dev Disord. 2006;36(8):1123–1129.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bertelli MO, Azeem MW, Underwood L, et al. Autism Spectrum Disorder. In: Bertelli MO, Deb S, Munir K, et al., editors. Textbook of psychiatry for intellectual disability and autism spectrum disorder. Cham, Switzerland: Springer; 2022. p. 369–455.
   Google Scholar
• Lai MC, Kassee C, Besney R, et al. Prevalence of co-occurring mental health diagnoses in the autism population: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Psychiat. 2019;6(10):819–829.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lugo-Marín J, Magán-Maganto M, Rivero-Santana A, et al. Prevalence of psychiatric disorders in adults with autism spectrum disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Res Autism Spectr Disord. 2019;59:22–33.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hollocks MJ, Lerh JW, Magiati I, et al. Anxiety and depression in adults with autism spectrum disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychol Med. 2019;49(4):559–572.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mannion A, Leader G. Comorbidity in autism spectrum disorder: a literature review. Res Autism Spectr Disord. 2013;7(12):1595–1616.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deb S, Thomas M, Bright C. Mental disorder in adults with intellectual disability. 1: prevalence of functional psychiatric illness among a community-based population aged between 16 and 64 years. J Intellect Disabil Res. 2001;45(Pt6):495–505.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Smiley E. Epidemiology of mental health problems in adults with learning disability: an update. Adv Psych Treatment Cambridge Univ Press. 2005;11(3):214–222.
   Google Scholar
• Cooper SA, Smiley E, Morrison J, et al. Mental ill-health in adults with intellectual disabilities: prevalence and associated factors. Br J Psychiatry. 2007;190:27–35.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bradley EA, Summers JA, Wood HL, et al. Comparing rates of psychiatric and behavior disorders in adolescents and young adults with severe intellectual disability with and without autism. J Autism Dev Disord. 2004;34(2):151–161.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mouridsen SE, Rich B, Isager T, et al. Pervasive developmental disorders and criminal behaviour: a case control study. Int J Offender Ther Comp Criminol. 2008;52(2):196–205.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matson JL, Cervantes PE. Commonly studied comorbid psychopathologies among persons with autism spectrum disorder. Res Dev Disabil. 2014;35(5):952–962.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Melville CA, Cooper SA, Morrison J, et al. The prevalence and incidence of mental ill-health in adults with autism and intellectual disabilities. J Autism Dev Disord. 2008;38(9):1676–1688.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mazza MG, Rossetti A, Crespi G, et al. Prevalence of co-occurring psychiatric disorders in adults and adolescents with intellectual disability: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Appl Res Intellect Disabil. 2020;33(2):126–138.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Howlin P. Outcome in adult life for more able individuals with autism or Asperger syndrome. Autism. 2000;4(1):63–83.
   Google Scholar
• Stewart ME, Barnard L, Pearson J, et al. Presentation of depression in autism and Asperger syndrome: a review. Autism. 2006;10(1):103–116.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Einfeld SL, Piccinin AM, Mackinnon A, et al. Psychopathology in young people with intellectual disability. JAMA. 2006;296(16):1981–1989.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Day K, Jancar J. Mental and physical health and ageing in mental handicap: a review. J Intellect Disabil Res. 1994;38:241–256.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Axmon A, Björne P, Nylander L, et al. Psychiatric diagnoses in older people with intellectual disability in comparison with the general population: a register study. Epidemiol Psychiatr Sci. 2018;27(5):479–491.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simonoff E, Jones CR, Baird G, et al. The persistence and stability of psychiatric problems in adolescents with autism spectrum disorders. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2013;54(2):186–194.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matson JL, Rivet TT. Characteristics of challenging behaviours in adults with autistic disorder, PDD-NOS, and intellectual disability. J Intellect Dev Disabil. 2008;33(4):323–329.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Brien G, Pearson J. Autism and learning disability. Autism. 2004;8(2):125–140.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matson JL, Sipes M, Fodstad JC, et al. Issues in the management of challenging behaviours of adults with autism spectrum disorder. CNS Drugs. 2011;25(7):597–606. PMID: 21699271.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hassiotis A, Robotham D, Canagasabey A, et al. Randomized, single-blind, controlled trial of a specialist behavior therapy team for challenging behavior in adults with intellectual disabilities. Am J Psychiatry. 2009;166(11):1278–1285. PMID: 19687128.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tsakanikos E, Costello H, Holt G, et al. Behaviour management problems as predictors of psychotropic medication and use of psychiatric services in adults with autism. J Autism Dev Disord. 2007;37(6):1080–1085.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lake JK, Balogh RS, Lunsky Y. Polypharmacy profiles and predictors among adults with autism spectrum disorders. Res Autism Spectr Disord. 2012;6:1142–1149.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Myers SM, Johnson CP. American Academy of Pediatrics council on children with disabilities. management of children with autism spectrum disorders. Pediatrics. 2007;120(5):1162–1182. PMID: 17967921.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sturmey P, Lott JD, Laud R, et al. Correlates of restraint use in an institutional population: a replication. J Intellect Disabil Res. 2005;49(Pt7):501–506. PMID: 15966957.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• McGill P, Poynter J. High cost residential placements for adults with intellectual disabilities. J Appl Res Intellect Disabil. 2012;25(6):584–587. PMID: 23055291.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Emerson E, Moss S, Kiernan CK. The relationship between challenging behavior and psychiatric disorders in people with severe intellectual disabilities. In: Bouras N, editor. Psychiatric and behavioral disorders in mental retardation. Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press; 1999. p. 38–48.
   Google Scholar
• Moss S, Emerson E, Kiernan C, et al. Psychiatric symptoms in adults with learning disability and challenging behaviour. Br J Psychiatry. 2000;177:452–456. PMID: 11060000.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rojahn J, Matson JL, Naglieri JA, et al. Relationships between psychiatric conditions and behavior problems among adults with mental retardation. Am J Ment Retard. 2004;109(1):21–33. PMID: 14651452.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kishore MT, Nizamie SH, Nizamie A. The behavioural profile of psychiatric disorders in persons with intellectual disability. J Intellect Disabil Res. 2005;49(Pt11):852–857. PMID: 16207283.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Charlot L. Use of behavioural equivalents for symptoms of mood disorder. In: Sturmey P, editor. Mood disorders in people with mental retardation. Kingston NY: NADD; 2005. p. 17–45.
   Google Scholar
• Hurley AD. Mood disorders in intellectual disability. Curr Opin Psychiatry. 2006;19(5):465–469. PMID: 16874117.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hemmings CP, Gravestock S, Pickard M, et al. Psychiatric symptoms and problem behaviours in people with intellectual disabilities. J Intellect Disabil Res. 2006;50(Pt4):269–276. PMID: 16507031.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Felce D, Kerr M, Hastings RP. A general practice-based study of the relationship between indicators of mental illness and challenging behaviour among adults with intellectual disabilities. J Intellect Disabil Res. 2009;53(3):243–254. PMID: 19017165.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bertelli MO, Rossi M, Scuticchio D, et al. Diagnosing psychiatric disorders in people with intellectual disabilities: issues and achievements. Adv Ment Health Intellect Disabil. 2015;9(5):230–242.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lainhart JE. Psychiatric problems in individuals with autism, their parents and siblings. Int Rev Psychiatry. 1999;11:278–298.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rutter M, Greenfeld D, Lockyer L. A five to fifteen year follow-up study of infantile psychosis: II. Social and Behavioural Outcome Br J Psychiatry. 1967;113:1183–1199.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rumsey JM, Rapoport JL, Sceery WR. Autistic children as adults: psychiatric, social, and behavioral outcomes. J Am Acad Child Psychiatry. 1985;24(4):465–473. PMID: 4019976.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Frazier JA, Biederman J, Bellordre C, et al. Should the diagnosis of attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder be considered in children with pervasive developmental disorder? J Atten Disord. 2001;4:203–211.
   Google Scholar
• Hurley AD. Identifying psychiatric disorders in persons with mental retardation: a model illustrated by depression in down syndrome. J Rehabil. 1996;62(1):27.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clarke DJ, Littlejohns CS, Corbett JA, et al. Pervasive developmental disorders and psychoses in adult life. Br J Psychiatry. 1989;155:692–699.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghaziuddin M, Tsai L, Ghaziuddin N. Comorbidity of autistic disorder in children and adolescents. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1992;1(4):209–213. PMID: 29871444.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kobayashi R, Murata T. Setback phenomenon in autism and long-term prognosis. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 1998;98:296–303.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Volkmar FR, Cohen DJ. Comorbid association of autism and schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry. 1991;148(12):1705–1707. PMID: 1957933.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Farmer C, Thurm A, Grant P. Pharmacotherapy for the core symptoms in autistic disorder: current status of the research. Drugs. 2013;73(4):303–314.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vitiello B. Editorial: targeting the core symptoms of autism spectrum disorder with mechanism-based medications. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2021;60(7):816–817.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaplan G, McCracken JT. Psychopharmacology of autism spectrum disorders. Pediatr Clin North Am. 2012;59(1):175–187. PMID: 22284801.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Politte LC, Henry CA, McDougle CJ. Psychopharmacological interventions in autism spectrum disorder. Harv Rev Psychiatry. 2014;22(2):76–92. PMID: 24614763.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deb S, Kwok H, Bertelli M, et al. Guideline development group of the WPA section on psychiatry of intellectual disability. International guide to prescribing psychotropic medication for the management of problem behaviours in adults with intellectual disabilities. World Psychiatry. 2009;8(3):181–186. PMID: 19812757.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glover G, Bernard S, Branford D, et al. Use of medication for challenging behaviour in people with intellectual disability. Br J Psychiatry. 2014;205:6–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Public Health England. Prescribing of psychotropic drugs to people with learning disabilities and/or autism by general practitioners in England. London: Public Health England; 2015.
   Google Scholar
• Dove D, Warren Z, McPheeters ML, et al. Medications for adolescents and young adults with autism spectrum disorders: a systematic review. Pediatrics. 2012;130(4):717–726. PMID: 23008452.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Esbensen AJ, Greenberg JS, Seltzer MM, et al. A longitudinal investigation of psychotropic and non-psychotropic medication use among adolescents and adults with autism spectrum disorders. J Autism Dev Disord. 2009;39(9):1339–1349. PMID: 19434487.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ratey JJ, Bemporad J, Sorgi P, et al. Open trial effects of beta-blockers on speech and social behaviors in 8 autistic adults. J Autism Dev Disord. 1987;17(3):439–446. PMID: 3654495.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Theoharides TC, Asadi S. Unwanted interactions among psychotropic drugs and other treatments for autism spectrum disorders. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2012;32(4):437–440. PMID: 22722515.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Houghton R, Ong RC, Bolognani F. Psychiatric comorbidities and use of psychotropic medications in people with autism spectrum disorder in the United States. Autism Res. 2017;10(12):2037–2047. PMID: 28963809.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Accordino RE, Kidd C, Politte LC, et al. Psychopharmacological interventions in autism spectrum disorder. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2016;17(7):937–952. PMID: 26891879.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cummings JR, Lynch FL, Rust KC, et al. Health services utilization among children with and without autism spectrum disorders. J Autism Dev Disord. 2016;46(3):910–920. PMID: 26547921.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deb S, Clarke D, Unwin G. Using medication to manage behaviour problems among adults with a learning disability: quick reference guide. London, United Kingdom: Mencap; 2006.
   Google Scholar
• Sellick T, Ure A, Williams K. Repetitive and restricted behaviours and anxiety in autism spectrum disorder: protocol for a systematic review and meta-analysis. Syst Rev. 2021;10(1):303. PMID: 34857047.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sheehan R, Hassiotis A, Walters K, et al. Mental illness, challenging behaviour, and psychotropic drug prescribing in people with intellectual disability: UK population based cohort study. BMJ. 2015;351. DOI:10.1136/bmj.h4326. PMID: 26330451.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Clarke DJ, Kelley S, Thinn K, et al. Psychotropic drugs and mental retardation: 1. Disabilities and the prescription of drugs for behaviour and for epilepsy in three residential settings. J Ment Defic Res. 1990;34(Pt5):385–395. PMID: 2266549.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Reiss S, Aman MG. The international consensus process on psychopharmacology and intellectual disability. J Intellect Disabil Res. 1997;41(Pt6):448–455. PMID: 9430048.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Aman MG, Crismon ML, Frances A,et al. Expert consensus guideline series: treatment of psychiatric and behavioral problems in mental retardation. Am J Ment Retard. 2000; 105(3):159–226. PMID: 10907489
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Deb S, Unwin G. Guide to using psychotropic medication for the management of behaviour problems among adults with intellectual disability: technical document . 2006. [cited 2023 Jan 30]. Available from: https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/Documents/college-les/psych/ld/medication-guide/LDMTechnicalDocuments1.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Branford D, Gerrard D, Saleem N, et al. “Stopping over-medication of people with intellectual disability, Autism or both (STOMP) in England part 1 – history and background of STOMP”. Adv Ment Health Intellect Disabil. 2019; 13(1):31–40.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shankar R, Wilcock M, Oak K, et al. Stopping, rationalising or optimising antipsychotic drug treatment in people with intellectual disability and/or autism. Drug Ther Bull. 2019;57:10–13.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Buck TR, Viskochil J, Farley M, et al. Psychiatric comorbidity and medication use in adults with autism spectrum disorder. J Autism Dev Disord. 2014;44(12):3063–3071.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Slobbe LCJ, Füssenich K, Wong A, et al. Estimating disease prevalence from drug utilization data using the random forest algorithm. Eur J Public Health. 2019;29(4):615–621.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feroe AG, Uppal N, Gutiérrez-Sacristán A, et al. Medication use in the management of comorbidities among individuals with autism spectrum disorder from a large nationwide insurance database. JAMA Pediatr. 2021;175(9):957–965. PMID: 34097007.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Green VA, Pituch KA, Itchon J, et al. Internet survey of treatments used by parents of children with autism. Res Dev Disabil. 2006;27(1):70–84.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aman MG, Lam KSL, Van Bourgondien ME. Medication patterns in patients with autism: temporal, regional, and demographic influences. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2005;15(1):116–126.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin A, Sherwin T, Stubbe D, et al. Datapoints: use of multiple psychotropic drugs by Medicaid-insured and privately insured children. Psychiatr Serv. 2002;53(12):1508.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jobski K, Höfer J, Hoffmann F, et al. Use of psychotropic drugs in patients with autism spectrum disorders: a systematic review. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2017;135(1):8–28.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Logan SL, Nicholas JS, Carpenter LA, et al. High prescription drug use and associated costs among Medicaid-eligible children with autism spectrum disorders identified by a population-based surveillance network. Ann Epidemiol. 2012;22(1):1–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• La Malfa G, Lassi S, Salvini R, et al. The relationship between autism and psychiatric disorders in intellectually disabled adults. Res Autism Spectr Disord. 2007;1(3):218–228.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cervantes PE, Matson JL. Comorbid symptomatology in adults with autism spectrum disorder and intellectual disability. J Autism Dev Disord. 2015;45(12):3961–3970.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abdallah MW, Greaves-Lord K, Grove J, et al. Psychiatric comorbidities in autism spectrum disorders: findings from a Danish historic birth cohort. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2011;20(11–12):599–601.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reale L, Frassica S, Gollner A, et al. Transition to adult mental health services for young people with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in Italy: parents’ and clinicians’ experiences. Postgrad Med. 2015;127(7):671–676.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Conca A, Raponi A, Gozzi G, et al. Adult ADHD: a study on evaluation and treatment pathways in Italian mental health services. Riv Psichiatr. 2021;56(6):300–307.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deb SS, Bertelli MO, Rossi M. Psychopharmacology. In: MO B, Deb S, Munir K, et al., editors. Textbook of psychiatry for intellectual disability and autism spectrum disorder. Cham, Switzerland: Springer; 2022. p. 247–279. DOI:10.1007/978-3-319-95720-3_11.
   Google Scholar
• Fletcher R, Barnhill J, Cooper SA, editors. Diagnostic manual – intellectual disability: a textbook of diagnosis of mental disorders in persons with intellectual disability. 2nd ed. Kingston NY: NADD Press; 2016.
   Google Scholar
• Royal College of Psychiatrists. DC-LD : Diagnostic Criteria for Psychiatric Disorders for Use with Adults with Learning Disabilities/Mental Retardation. London: Gaskell; 2001.
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization (WHO). The ICD-10 classification of mental and behavioural disorders: diagnostic criteria for research. World Health Organization. Geneva: WHO; 1993.
   Google Scholar
• NICE. Autism: Recognition, Referral, Diagnosis and management of adults on the autism spectrum. Clinical guideline 142. London: NICE; 2012. [cited 2022 Mar 10]. Available from: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg142
   Google Scholar
• Murray ML, Hsia Y, Glaser K, et al. Pharmacological treatments prescribed to people with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in primary health care. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2014;231:1011–1021.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Branch MN. How research in behavioral pharmacology informs behavioral science. J Exp Anal Behav. 2006;85(3):407–423. PMID: 16776059.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deb SS, Unwin G, Cooper SA, et al. Problem Behaviour. Bertelli MO, Deb S, Munir K, et al. editors. Textbook of psychiatry for intellectual disability and autism spectrum disorder. Cham: Springer. 2022. 145–185. DOI:10.1007/978-3-319-95720-3_7
   Google Scholar
• Linke AC, Olson L, Gao Y, et al. Psychotropic medication use in autism spectrum disorders may affect functional brain connectivity. Biol Psychiatry Cogn Neurosci Neuroimaging. 2017;2(6):518–527.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wachtel LE, Hagopian LP. Psychopharmacology and applied behavioral analysis: tandem treatment of severe problem behaviors in intellectual disability and a case series. Isr J Psychiatry Relat Sci. 2006;43(4):265–274.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sandbank M, Bottema-Beutel K, Woynaroski T. Intervention recommendations for children with autism in light of a changing evidence base. JAMA Pediatr. 2021;175(4):341–342.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Findholt NE, Emmett CG. Impact of interdisciplinary team review on psychotropic drug use with persons who have mental retardation. Ment Retard. 1990;28(1):41–46.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar