HIV-1 therapeutic vaccines in clinical development to intensify or replace antiretroviral therapy: the promising results of the Tat vaccine

References

• Ghosn J, Taiwo B, Seedat S, et al. HIV. Lancet. 2018;392:685–697.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rodger AJ, Cambiano V, Bruun T, et al. Risk of HIV transmission through condomless sex in serodifferent gay couples with the HIV-positive partner taking suppressive antiretroviral therapy (PARTNER): final results of a multicentre, prospective, observational study. Lancet. 2019;393:2428–2438.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Darcis G, Berkhout B, Pasternak AO. Differences in HIV markers between infected individuals treated with different ART regimens: implications for the persistence of viral reservoirs. Viruses. 2020;12(5):489.
   Google Scholar
• Cohn LB, Chomont N, Deeks SG. The biology of the HIV-1 latent reservoir and implications for cure strategies. Cell Host Microbe. 2020;27(4):519–530.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Colby DJ, Trautmann L, Pinyakorn S, et al. Rapid HIV RNA rebound after antiretroviral treatment interruption in persons durably suppressed in Fiebig I acute HIV infection. Nat Med. 2018;24:923–926.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jespersen NA, Axelsen F, Dollerup J, et al. The burden of non-communicable diseases and mortality in people living with HIV (PLHIV) in the pre-, early- and late-HAART era. HIV Med. 2021;22(6):478–490.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Yang X, Su B, Zhang X, et al. Incomplete immune reconstitution in HIV/AIDS patients on antiretroviral therapy: challenges of immunological non-responders. J Leukoc Biol. 2020;107:597–612.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silva BF, Peixoto G, da Luz SR, et al. Adverse effects of chronic treatment with the main subclasses of highly active antiretroviral therapy: a systematic review. HIV Med. 2019;20:429–438.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crowell TA, Danboise B, Parikh A, et al. Pre-treatment and acquired antiretroviral drug resistance among persons living with HIV in four African countries. Clin Infect Dis. 2020;12:ciaa1161.
   Google Scholar
• [cited 2022 Mar 11]. https://www.unaids.org/en/resources/fact-sheet
   Google Scholar
• Teeraananchai S, Kerr SJ, Amin J, et al. Life expectancy of HIV-positive people after starting combination antiretroviral therapy: a meta-analysis. HIV Med. 2017;18:256–266.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• [cited 2022 Mar 11]. https://clinicalinfo.hiv.gov/en/guidelines/adult-and-adolescent-arv/cost-considerations-and-antiretroviral-therapy
   Google Scholar
• Ward T, Sugrue D, Hayward O, et al. Estimating HIV management and comorbidity costs among aging HIV patients in the United States: a systematic review. J Manag Care Spec Pharm. 2020;26:104–116.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meyer-Rath G, van Rensburg C, Chiu C, et al. The per-patient costs of HIV services in South Africa: systematic review and application in the South African HIV investment case. PLoS One. 2019;14:e0210497.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Miguel Buckley R, Montejano R, Stella-Ascariz N, et al. New strategies of ARV: the road to simplification. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep. 2018;15:11–19.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Margolis DA, Gonzalez-García J, Stellbrink HJ, et al. Long-acting intramuscular cabotegravir and rilpivirine in adults with HIV-1 infection (LATTE-2): 96-week results of a randomised, open-label, phase 2b, non-inferiority trial. Lancet. 2017;390:1499–1510.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Margolis DM, Archin NM, Cohen MS, et al. Curing HIV: seeking to target and clear persistent infection. Cell. 2020;181:189–206.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Navarrete-Muñoz MA, Restrepo C, Benito JM, et al. Elite controllers: a heterogeneous group of HIV-infected patients. Virulence. 2020;11:889–897.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Etemad B, Esmaeilzadeh E, Li JZ. Learning from the exceptions: HIV remission in post-treatment controllers. Front Immunol. 2019;10:1749.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Janssens J, Bruggemans A, Christ F, et al. Towards a functional cure of HIV-1: insight into the chromatin landscape of the provirus. Front Microbio. 2021;12:636642.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Research TAG. Toward a cure trials [Internet]. [cited 2022 Mar 11]. Available from: http://www.treatmentactiongroup.org/cure/trials.
   Google Scholar
• Pitman MC, Lau JSY, McMahon JH, et al. Barriers and strategies to achieve a cure for HIV. Lancet HIV. 2018;5(6):e317–328.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ward AR, Mota TM, Jones RB. Immunological approaches to HIV cure. Semin Immunol. 2021;51:101412.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mu W, Carrillo MA, Kitchen SG. Engineering CAR T Cells to Target the HIV Reservoir. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2020;10:410.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mendoza P, Gruell H, Nogueira L, et al. Combination therapy with anti-HIV-1 antibodies maintains viral suppression. Nature. 2018;561:479–484.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caskey M, Klein F, Nussenzweig MC. Broadly neutralizing anti-HIV-1 monoclonal antibodies in the clinic. Nat Med. 2019;25:547–553.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Challacombe SJ. Global inequalities in HIV infection. Oral Dis. 2020;26(Suppl 1):16–21.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Leal L, Fehér C, Richart V, et al. Antiretroviral therapy interruption (ATI) in HIV-1 infected patients participating in therapeutic vaccine trials: surrogate markers of virological response. Vaccines (Basel). 2020;8(3):442.
   Google Scholar
• Richart V, Fernandez I, de Lazzari E, et al. High rate of long-term clinical events after ART resumption in HIV-positive patients exposed to antiretroviral therapy interruption. AIDS. 2021;35(15):2463–2468.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Graziani GM, Angel JB. Evaluating the efficacy of therapeutic HIV vaccines through analytical treatment interruptions. J Int AIDS Soc. 2015;18:20497.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pantaleo G, Lévy Y. Therapeutic vaccines and immunological intervention in HIV infection: a paradigm change. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2016;11:576–584.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Larijani MS, Ramezani A, Sadat SM. Updated studies on the development of HIV therapeutic vaccine. Curr HIV Res. 2019;17(2):75–84.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moretti S, Cafaro A, Tripiciano A, et al. HIV therapeutic vaccines aimed at intensifying combination antiretroviral therapy. Expert Rev Vaccines. 2020;19:71–84.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chen Z, Julg B. Therapeutic vaccines for the treatment of HIV. Transl Res. 2020;223:61–75.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Korber B, Fischer W. T cell-based strategies for HIV-1 vaccines. Hum Vaccin Immunother. 2020;16:713–722 8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Casado C, Marrero-Hernández S, Márquez-Arce D, et al. Viral characteristics associated with the clinical nonprogressor phenotype are inherited by viruses from a cluster of HIV-1 elite controllers. mBio. 2018;9(2):e02338–17.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sharaf R, Lee GQ, Sun X, et al. HIV-1 proviral landscapes distinguish posttreatment controllers from noncontrollers. J Clin Invest. 2018;128(9):4074–4085.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pohlmeyer CW, Gonzalez VD, Irrinki A, et al. Identification of NK cell subpopulations that differentiate HIV-infected subject cohorts with diverse levels of virus control. J Virol. 2019;93(7):e01790–e01818.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Borrell M, Fernández I, Etcheverry F, et al. High rates of long-term progression in HIV-1-positive elite controllers. J Int AIDS Soc. 2021;24:e25675.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gay CL, DeBenedette MA, Tcherepanova IY, et al. Immunogenicity of AGS-004 dendritic cell therapy in patients treated during acute HIV infection. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 2018;34:111–122.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mothe B, Rosás-Umbert M, Coll P, et al. HIVconsv vaccines and romidepsin in early-treated HIV-1-infected individuals: safety, immunogenicity and effect on the viral reservoir (Study BCN02). Front Immunol. 2020;11:823.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fidler S, Stöhr W, Pace M, et al. Antiretroviral therapy alone versus antiretroviral therapy with a kick and kill approach, on measures of the HIV reservoir in participants with recent HIV infection (the RIVER trial): a phase 2, randomised trial. Lancet. 2020;395(10227):888–898.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haidari G, Day S, Wood M, et al. The safety and immunogenicity of GTU®MultiHIV DNA vaccine delivered by transcutaneous and intramuscular injection with or without electroporation in HIV-1 positive subjects on suppressive ART. Front Immunol. 2019;10:2911.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lévy Y, Lacabaratz C, Lhomme E, et al. A randomized placebo-controlled efficacy study of a prime boost therapeutic vaccination strategy in HIV-1-Infected individuals: VRI02 ANRS 149 LIGHT Phase II Trial. J Virol. 2021;95(9):e02165–20.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sneller MC, Justement JS, Gittens KR, et al. A randomized controlled safety/efficacy trial of therapeutic vaccination in HIV-infected individuals who initiated antiretroviral therapy early in infection. Sci Transl Med. 2017;9(419):eaan8848.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leal L, Guardo AC, Morón-López S, et al. Phase I clinical trial of an intranodally administered mRNA-based therapeutic vaccine against HIV-1 infection. AIDS. 2018;32(17):2533–2545.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Jong W, Aerts J, Allard S, et al. iHIVARNA phase IIa, a randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blinded trial to evaluate the safety and immunogenicity of iHIVARNA-01 in chronically HIV-infected patients under stable combined antiretroviral therapy. Trials. 2019;20:361.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gay CL, Kuruc JD, Falcinelli SD, et al. Assessing the impact of AGS-004, a dendritic cell-based immunotherapy, and vorinostat on persistent HIV-1 Infection. Sci Rep. 2020;10:5134.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Vieillard V, Combadière B, Tubiana R, et al. HIV therapeutic vaccine enhances non-exhausted CD4+ T cells in a randomised phase 2 trial. NPJ Vaccines. 2019;4:25.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loret EP, Darque A, Jouve E, et al. Intradermal injection of a Tat Oyi-based therapeutic HIV vaccine reduces of 1.5 log copies/mL the HIV RNA rebound median and no HIV DNA rebound following cART interruption in a phase I/II randomized controlled clinical trial. Retrovirology. 2016;13:21.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tung FY, Tung JK, Pallikkuth S, et al. A therapeutic HIV-1 vaccine enhances anti-HIV-1 immune responses in patients under highly active antiretroviral therapy. Vaccine. 2016;34(19):2225–2232.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sgadari C, Monini P, Tripiciano A, et al. Continued decay of HIV proviral DNA upon vaccination with HIV-1 Tat of subjects on long-term ART: an 8-year follow-up study. Front Immunol. 2019;10:233.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pallikkuth S, Bolivar H, Fletcher MA, et al. A therapeutic HIV-1 vaccine reduces markers of systemic immune activation and latent infection in patients under highly active antiretroviral therapy. Vaccine. 2020;38(27):4336–4345.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ensoli B, Bellino S, Tripiciano A, et al. Therapeutic immunization with HIV-1 Tat reduces immune activation and loss of regulatory T-cells and improves immune function in subjects on HAART. PLoS One. 2010;5(11):e13540.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ensoli F, Cafaro A, Casabianca A, et al. HIV-1 Tat immunization restores immune homeostasis and attacks the HAART-resistant blood HIV DNA: results of a randomized phase II exploratory clinical trial. Retrovirology. 2015;12:33.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diaz RS, Giron LB, Hunter J, et al. Randomized trial of impact of multiple interventions on HIV Reservoir: sparc-7 Trial. Presented at: Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections (CROI). Seattle, Washington, 2019 Mar 4-7.
   Google Scholar
• Mouquet H, Scharf L, Euler Z, et al. Complex-type N-glycan recognition by potent broadly neutralizing HIV antibodies. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2012;109:E3268–77.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walker LM, Huber M, Doores KJ, et al. Broad neutralization coverage of HIV by multiple highly potent antibodies. Nature. 2011;477:466–470.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sok D, van Gils MJ, Pauthner M, et al. Recombinant HIV envelope trimer selects for quaternary-dependent antibodies targeting the trimer apex. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2014;111:17624–17629.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gaudinski MR, Houser KV, Doria-Rose NA, et al. Safety and pharmacokinetics of broadly neutralising human monoclonal antibody VRC07-523LS in healthy adults: a phase 1 dose-escalation clinical trial. Lancet HIV. 2019;6:e667–e679.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bailon L, Llano A, Cedeño S, et al. A placebo-controlled ATI trial of HTI vaccines in early treated HIV infection. Presented at: 28th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections (CROI). Virtual, March 6–10 (2021).
   Google Scholar
• Hsu DC, Mellors JW, Vasan S. Can broadly neutralizing HIV-1 antibodies help achieve an ART-free remission? Front Immun. 2021;12:710044.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mothe B, Llano A, Ibarrondo J, et al. Definition of the viral targets of protective HIV-1-specific T cell responses. J Transl Med. 2011;9:208.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gómez CE, Nájera JL, Jiménez EP, et al. Head-to-head comparison on the immunogenicity of two HIV/AIDS vaccine candidates based on the attenuated poxvirus strains MVA and NYVAC co-expressing in a single locus the HIV-1BX08 gp120 and HIV-1(IIIB) Gag-Pol-Nef proteins of clade B. Vaccine. 2007;25:2863–2885.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mothe B, Climent N, Plana M, et al. Safety and immunogenicity of a modified vaccinia Ankara-based HIV-1 vaccine (MVA-B) in HIV-1-infected patients alone or in combination with a drug to reactivate latent HIV-1. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2015;70(6):1833–1842.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Byrareddy SN, Arthos J, Cicala C, et al. Sustained virologic control in SIV+ macaques after antiretroviral and α4β7 antibody therapy. Science. 2016;354:197–202.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abbink P, Mercado NB, Nkolola JP, et al. Lack of therapeutic efficacy of an antibody to α4β7 in SIVmac251-infected rhesus macaques. Science. 2019;365:1029–1033.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Colby DJ, Sarnecki M, Barouch DH, et al. Safety and immunogenicity of Ad26 and MVA vaccines in acutely treated HIV and effect on viral rebound after antiretroviral therapy interruption. Nat Med. 2020;26(4):498–501.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kulkarni V, Valentin A, Rosati M, et al. HIV-1 Conserved elements p24CE DNA vaccine induces humoral immune responses with broad epitope recognition in macaques. PLoS One. 2014;9:e111085.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wyatt LS, Earl PL, Liu JY, et al. Multiprotein HIV type 1 clade B DNA and MVA vaccines: construction, expression, and immunogenicity in rodents of the MVA component. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 2004;20(6):645–653.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CORDIS: periodic Reporting for period 3 - EHVA (European HIV Vaccine Alliance (EHVA): a EU platform for the discovery and evaluation of novel prophylactic and therapeutic vaccine candidates), project 681032. [cited 2022 Mar 11]. Available from: https://cordis.europa.eu/project/id/681032/reporting.
   Google Scholar
• [cited 2022 Mar11]. https://www.nih.gov/news-events/news-releases/hiv-vaccine-candidate-does-not-sufficiently-protect-women-against-hiv-infection
   Google Scholar
• Wu Y, Marsh JW. Selective transcription and modulation of resting T cell activity by preintegrated HIV DNA. Science. 2001;293(5534):1503–1506.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fisher AG, Feinberg MB, Joseph SF, et al. The trans-activator gene of HTLV-III is essential for virus replication. Nature. 1986;320(6060):9367–9371.
   Google Scholar
• Mediouni S, Darque A, Baillat G, et al. Antiretroviral therapy does not block the secretion of the human immunodeficiency virus Tat protein. Infect Disord Drug Targets. 2012;12(1):81–86.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chang HC, Samaniego F, Nair BC, et al. HIV-1 Tat protein exits from cells via a leaderless secretory pathway and binds to extracellular matrix-associated heparan sulfate proteoglycans through its basic region. AIDS. 1997;11(12):1421–1431.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rayne F, Debaisieux S, Yezid H, et al. Phosphatidylinositol-(4,5)-bisphosphate enables efficient secretion of HIV-1 Tat by infected T-cells. EMBO J. 2010;29:1348–1362.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Agostini S, Ali H, Vardabasso C, et al. Inhibition of non canonical HIV-1 Tat secretion through the cellular Na+,K+-ATPase blocks HIV-1 infection. EBioMedicine. 2017;21:170–181.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chertova E, Chertov O, Coren LV, et al. Proteomic and biochemical analysis of purified human immunodeficiency virus type 1 produced from infected monocyte-derived macrophages. J Virol. 2006;80(18):9039–9052.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Monini P, Cafaro A, Srivastava IK, et al. HIV-1 tat promotes integrin-mediated HIV transmission to dendritic cells by binding Env spikes and competes neutralization by anti-HIV antibodies. PLoS One. 2012;7(11):e48781.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cafaro A, Barillari G, Moretti S, et al. HIV-1 tat protein enters dysfunctional endothelial cells via integrins and renders them permissive to virus replication. Int J Mol Sci. 2020;22(1):317.
   Google Scholar
• Reeder JE, Kwak Y-T, McNamara RP, et al. HIV Tat controls RNA Polymerase II and the epigenetic landscape to transcriptionally reprogram target immune cells. Elife. 2015;4:e08955.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clark E, Nava B, Caputi M. Tat is a multifunctional viral protein that modulates cellular gene expression and functions. Oncotarget. 2017;8(16):27569–27581.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cafaro A, Tripiciano A, Picconi O, et al. Anti-tat immunity in HIV-1 infection: effects of naturally occurring and vaccine-induced antibodies against tat on the course of the disease. Vaccines (Basel). 2019;7(3):99.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ajasin D, Eugenin EA. HIV-1 tat: role in bystander toxicity. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2020;10:61.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Re MC, Furlini G, Vignoli M, et al. Effect of antibody to HIV-1 Tat protein on viral replication in vitro and progression of HIV-1 disease in vivo. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol. 1995;10(4):408–416.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zagury JF, Sill A, Blattner W, et al. Antibodies to the HIV-1 Tat protein correlated with nonprogression to AIDS: a rationale for the use of Tat toxoid as an HIV-1 vaccine. J Hum Virol. 1998;1(4):282–292.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Re MC, Vignoli M, Furlini G, et al. Antibodies against full-length Tat protein and some low-molecular-weight Tat-peptides correlate with low or undetectable viral load in HIV-1 seropositive patients. J Clin Virol. 2001;21(1):81–89.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Richardson MW, Mirchandani J, Duong J, et al. Antibodies to Tat and Vpr in the GRIV cohort: differential association with maintenance of long-term non-progression status in HIV-1 infection. Biomed Pharmacother. 2003;57(1):4–14.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rezza G, Fiorelli V, Dorrucci M, et al. The presence of anti-Tat antibodies is predictive of long-term nonprogression to AIDS or severe immunodeficiency: findings in a cohort of HIV-1 seroconverters. J Infect Dis. 2005;191(8):1321–1324.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bellino S, Tripiciano A, Picconi O, et al. The presence of anti-Tat antibodies in HIV-infected individuals is associated with containment of CD4+ T-cell decay and viral load, and with delay of disease progression: results of a 3-year cohort study. Retrovirology. 2014;11:49.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cafaro A, Tripiciano A, Sgadari C, et al. Development of a novel AIDS vaccine: the HIV-1 transactivator of transcription protein vaccine. Expert Opin Biol Ther. 2015;15 Suppl 1:S13–S29.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tripiciano A, Picconi O, Moretti S, et al. Anti-Tat immunity defines CD4+ T-cell dynamics in people living with HIV on long-term cART. EBioMedicine. 2021;66:103306.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cafaro A, Bellino S, Titti F, et al. Impact of viral dose and major histocompatibility complex class IB haplotype on viral outcome in Mauritian cynomolgus monkeys vaccinated with Tat upon challenge with simian/human immunodeficiency virus SHIV89.6P. J Virol. 2010;84:8953–8958.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ensoli B, Fiorelli V, Ensoli F, et al. The therapeutic phase I trial of the recombinant native HIV-1 Tat protein. AIDS. 2008;22:2207–2209.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Longo O, Tripiciano A, Fiorelli V, et al. Phase I therapeutic trial of the HIV-1 Tat protein and long term follow-up. Vaccine. 2009;27:3306–3312.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ensoli B, Nchabeleng M, Ensoli F, et al. HIV-Tat immunization induces cross-clade neutralizing antibodies and CD4(+) T cell increases in antiretroviral-treated South African volunteers: a randomized phase II clinical trial. Retrovirology. 2016;13(34). DOI:10.1186/s12977-016-0261-1.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jin H, Li D, Lin MH, et al. Tat-based therapies as an adjuvant for an HIV-1 functional cure. Viruses. 2020;12(4):415.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WHO HIV drug resistance report 2021. World Health Organization, Geneva 2021
   Google Scholar
• Dubé K, Kanazawa J, Dee L, et al. Considerations for designing and implementing combination HIV cure trials: findings from a qualitative in-depth interview study in the United States. AIDS Res Ther. 2021;18:1–17.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hansen SG, Ford JC, Lewis MS, et al. Profound early control of highly pathogenic SIV by an effector memory T-cell vaccine. Nature. 2011;473:523–527.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hansen SG, Piatak M, Ventura AB, et al. Immune clearance of highly pathogenic SIV infection. Nature. 2013;502:100–104.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hansen SG, Marshall EE, Malouli D, et al. A live-attenuated RhCMV/SIV vaccine shows long-term efficacy against heterologous SIV challenge. Sci Transl Med. 2019;11. DOI:10.1126/scitranslmed.aaw2607.
   Google Scholar
• Verweij MC, Hansen SG, Iyer R, et al. Modulation of MHC-E transport by viral decoy ligands is required for RhCMV/SIV vaccine efficacy. Science. 2021;372:eabe9233.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• [cited 2022 May 23]. https://www.iavi.org/news-resources/press-releases/2022/iavi-and-moderna-launch-first-in-africa-clinical-trial-of-mrna-hiv-vaccine-development-program
   Google Scholar
• Casadevall A. The mRNA vaccine revolution is the dividend from decades of basic science research. J Clin Invest. 2021;131(19):e153721.
   Google Scholar
• Zhang L, Richards A, Barrasa MI, et al. Reverse-transcribed SARS-CoV-2 RNA can integrate into the genome of cultured human cells and can be expressed in patient-derived tissues. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2021;118(21):e2105968118.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kremer EJ. Pros and Cons of Adenovirus-Based SARS-CoV-2 Vaccines. Mol Ther. 2020;28:2303–2304.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Esteban I, Pastor-Quiñones C, Usero L, et al. In the Era of mRNA vaccines, is there any hope for HIV functional cure? Viruses. 2021;13(3):501.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Shapiro SZ. A proposal to use iterative, small clinical trials to optimize therapeutic HIV vaccine immunogens to launch therapeutic HIV vaccine development. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 2015;31:49–55.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar