The inhibitory effect of a distressing anti-smoking message on risk perceptions in smokers

References

• Baron , RM and Kenny , DA . 1986 . The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic and statistical considerations . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 51 : 1173 – 1182 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baron , R , Logan , H , Lilly , J , Inman , M and Brennan , M . 1994 . Negative emotion and message processing . Journal of Experimental Social Psychology , 30 : 181 – 201 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blanton , H and Gerrard , M . 1997 . Effect of sexual motivation on mens’ risk perception for sexually transmitted disease: There must be fifty ways to justify a lover . Health Psychology , 16 : 374 – 379 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boden , JM and Baumeister , RF . 1997 . Repressive coping: Distraction using pleasant thoughts and memories . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 73 : 45 – 62 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bonanno , GA , Davis , PJ , Singer , JL and Schwartz , GE . 1991 . The repressor personality and avoidant information processing: A dichotic listening study . Journal of Research in Personality , 25 : 386 – 401 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown , SL and Imber , A . 2003 . The effect of reducing opportunities for downward comparison on comparative optimism . Journal of Applied Social Psychology , 33 : 1 – 12 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown , SL . 2001 . Emotive health advertising and message resistance . Australian Psychologist , 3 : 193 – 199 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burger , JM and Palmer , ML . 1992 . Changes in and gereralization of comparative optimism following experiences of stressful events: Reactions to the 1989 California earthquake . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 18 : 39 – 43 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chapman , S , Wong , WL and Smith , W . 1993 . Self-exempting beliefs about smoking and health: Differences between smokers and ex-smokers . American Journal of Public Health , 83 : 215 – 219 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Floyd , DL , Prentice-Dunn , S and Rogers , RW . 2000 . A meta-analysis of research on protection motivation theory . Journal of Applied Social Psychology , 30 : 407 – 29 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fox , E . 1993 . Allocation of visual attention and anxiety . Cognition and Emotion , 7 : 207 – 215 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freeman , MA , Hennessey , EV and Marzullo , DM . 2001 . Defensive evaluation of antismoking messages among college-age smokers: The role of possible selves . Health Psychology , 20 : 424 – 433 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frey , D and Stahlberg , D . 1986 . Selection of information after receiving more or less reliable self-threatening information . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 12 : 434 – 441 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gleicher , F and Petty , RE . 1992 . Expectations of reassurance influence the nature of fear-stimulated attitude change . Journal of Experimental Social Psychology , 28 : 86 – 100 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greening , L , Dollinger , SJ and Pitz , G . 1996 . Adolescents’ perceived risk and experience with natural disasters: An evaluation of cognitive heuristics . Acta Psychologica , 91 : 27 – 38 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hale , JL and Dillard , JP . 1995 . “ Fear appeals in health promotion campaigns: Too much, too little, or just right? ” . In Designing health messages: Approaches from communication theory and public health practice , Edited by: Maibach , EW and Parrot , RL . NY : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Hill , D , Chapman , S and Donovan , R . 1998 . The return of scare tactics . Tobacco Control , 7 : 5 – 8 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Janis , IL and Terwilliger , R . 1962 . An experimental study of psychological resistance to fear-arousing communications . Journal of Abnormal Social Psychology , 65 : 403 – 410 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Janz , N and Becker , M . 1984 . The health-belief model: A decade later . Health Education Quarterly , 11 : 1 – 47 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Johnson , EJ and Tversky , A . 1983 . Affect, generalization, and the perception of risk . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 45 : 20 – 31 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kiviniemi , MT and Rothman , AJ . 2006 . Selective memory biases in individuals’ memory for health-related information and behavior recommendations . Psychology and Health , 21 : 247 – 272 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klein , WM . 1996 . Maintaining self-serving social comparisons: Attenuating the perceived significance of risk-increasing behaviors . Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology , 15 : 120 – 142 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klein , WM . 2003 . Effects of objective feedback and ‘single other’ or ‘average other’ social comparison feedback on performance judgements and helping behavior . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 29 : 418 – 429 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klein , WM and Kunda , Z . 1993 . Maintaining self-serving social comparisons: Biased reconstruction of one's past behaviors . Personality and Social Psychology Bullutin , 19 : 732 – 739 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee , C . 1989 . Perceptions of immunity to disease in adult smokers . Journal of Behavioral Medicine , 12 : 267 – 277 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liberman , A and Chaiken , S . 1992 . Defensive processing of personally-relevant health messages . Personality and Social Psychology Bullutin , 18 : 669 – 679 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loewenstein , GF , Weber , EU , Hsee , CK and Welch , N . 2001 . Risk as feelings . Psychological Bulletin , 127 : 267 – 286 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mendolia , M . 1999 . Repressors’ appraisal of emotional stimuli in threatening and non-threatening emotional contexts . Journal of Research in Personality , 33 : 1 – 26 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Myers , LB and Reynolds , DA . 2000 . How optimistic are repressors? The relationship between repressive coping, controllability, self-esteem and comparative optimism for health-related events . Psychology and Health , 15 : 677 – 687 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pechmann , C . 1997 . “ Does antismoking advertising prevent underage smoking? A review of past practises and research ” . In Social marketing: Theoretical and practical perspectives , Edited by: Goldberg , ME , Fishbein , M. and Middlestadt , SE . Mahwah, NJ : Erlbaum .
   Google Scholar
• Perloff , LS and Fetzer , BK . 1986 . Self-other judgements and perceived vulnerability to victimisation . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 50 : 502 – 510 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ruiter , RAC , Abraham , C and Kok , G . 2001 . Scary warnings and rational precautions: A review of the psychology of fear appeals . Psychology and Health , 16 : 613 – 630 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rutter , DR , Quine , L and Albery , IP . 1998 . Perceptions of risk in motorcyclists: Unrealistic optimism, relative realism and predictions of behaviour . British Journal of Psychology , 89 : 681 – 696 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taylor , SE and Brown , JD . 1988 . Illusion and well-being: A social psychological perspective on mental health . Psychological Bulletin , 103 : 193 – 210 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van der Pligt , J . 1998 . Perceived risk and vulnerability as predictors of precautionary behavior . British Journal of Health Psychology , 3 : 1 – 14 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van der Velde , FW , Hooykaas , C and van der Pligt , J . 1992 . Risk perception and behavior: Pessimism, realism and optimism about AIDS-related behavior . Psychology and Health , 6 : 23 – 48 .
   Google Scholar
• van der Velde , FW , van der Pligt , J and Hooykaas , C . 1996 . Conditional versus unconditional risk estimates in models of AIDS-related risk behavior . Psychology and Health , 12 : 87 – 100 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weinstein , ND . 1980 . Unrealistic optimism about future life events . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 39 : 805 – 820 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weinstein , ND . 1988 . The precaution adoption process . Health Psychology , 7 : 355 – 386 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Witte , K . 1992 . Putting the fear back into fear appeals: The extended parallel process model . Communication Monographs , 59 : 329 – 349 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar