Weaponizing narrative: Russia contesting EUrope’s liberal identity, power and hegemony

References

• Adamsky, D. 2019. Russian Nuclear Orthodoxy: Religion, Politics, and Strategy. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Allenby, B., and J. Garreau. 2017. Weaponized Narrative: The New Battlespace. Tempe, AZ: Center on the Future of War, Arizona State University.
   Google Scholar
• Allenby, B. R. 2017. “The Age of Weaponized Narrative.” Issues in Science and Technology, 33 (4): 65–70.
   Google Scholar
• Ambrosio, T., and G. Vandrovec. 2013. “Mapping the Geopolitics of the Russian Federation: The Federal Assembly Addresses of Putin and Medvedev.” Geopolitics 18 (2): 435–466. doi:10.1080/14650045.2012.717554.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Antelava, N., and J. Iacoboni. 2020. “The Influence Operation behind Russia’s Coronavirus Aid to Italy.” Coda Story, 2.4.2020, available at: https://www.codastory.com/disinformation/soft-power/russia-coronavirus-aid-italy
   Google Scholar
• Ban, P., A. Fouirnaies, A. Hall, and J. Snyder. 2019. “How Newspapers Reveal Political Power.” Political Science Research and Methods 7 (4): 661–678. doi:10.1017/psrm.2017.43.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bennetts, M. 2019. “Putin Changes the Channel on Ukraine.” POLITICO, 14.10.2019, available at: https://www.politico.eu/article/russia-president-vladimir-putin-changes-the-channel-on-ukraine-volodymyr-zelenskiy
   Google Scholar
• Berend, I. T. 2019. Against European Integration: The European Union and Its Discontents. London and New York: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Bettiza, G., and D. Lewis. 2020. “Authoritarian Powers and Norm Contestation in the Liberal International Order: Theorizing the Power Politics of Ideas and Identity.” Journal of Global Security Studies 5 (4): 559–577. doi:10.1093/jogss/ogz075.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Braghiroli, S., and A. Makarychev. 2018. “Redefining Europe: Russia and the 2015 Refugee Crisis.” Geopolitics 23 (4): 823–848. doi:10.1080/14650045.2017.1389721.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brunner, J. 1991. “The Narrative Construction of Reality.” Critical Inquiry 18 (1): 1–21. doi:10.1086/448619.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bryman, A. 2006. “Integrating Quantitative and Qualitative Research: How Is It Done?” Qualitative Research 6 (1): 97–113. doi:10.1177/1468794106058877.
   Google Scholar
• Cantat, C. 2015. “Narratives and Counter-narratives of Europe. Constructing and Contesting Europeanity.” Cahiers Mémoire et Politique 3: 5–30.
   Google Scholar
• Cohen, R. S., and A. Radin. 2019. Russia’s Hostile Measures in Europe: Understanding the Threat. Santa Monica, CA: RAND.
   Google Scholar
• Deriglazova, L. V. 2018. “Russia and the European Union in Eulerian Circles of ‘Europe’.” Russia in Global Affairs 16 (4): 8–30. doi:10.31278/1810-6374-2018-16-4-8-30.
   Google Scholar
• Diesen, G. 2020. “Russia as an International Conservative Power: The Rise of the Right-wing Populists and Their Affinity Towards Russia.” Journal of Contemporary European Studies 28 (2): 182–196. doi:10.1080/14782804.2019.1705770.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Efimova, A., and D. Strebkov. 2020. “Linking Public Opinion and Foreign Policy in Russia.” The International Spectator 55 (1): 93–111. doi:10.1080/03932729.2019.1700040.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elswah, M., and P. N. Howard. 2020. ““Anything that Causes Chaos”: The Organizational Behavior of Russia Today (RT).” Journal of Communication 70 (5): 623–645. doi:10.1093/joc/jqaa027.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Enikolopov, R., M. Petrova, and E. Zhuravskaya. 2011. “Media and Political Persuasion: Evidence from Russia.” The American Economic Review 101 (7): 3253–3285. doi:10.1257/aer.101.7.3253.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• EU East StratCom Task Force. 2020. “EUvsDisinfo Database.” last accessed on 15.06.2020, available at: https://euvsdisinfo.eu/disinformation-cases
   Google Scholar
• EUvsDisinfo. 2019. “European Elections: Are We Ready?” EUvsDisinfo Disinformation Review (Special Edition), 8.4.2019, available at: https://mailchi.mp/euvsdisinfo/drspecial2019
   Google Scholar
• EUvsDisinfo. 2020a. “The EU Is Hitler’s “New Europe”, Its Goal Is to Colonise Russia and Eurasian Space.” EUvsDisinfo, 27.04.2020, available at: https://euvsdisinfo.eu/report/the-eu-is-hitlers-new-europe-its-goal-is-to-colonize-russia-and-eurasian-space
   Google Scholar
• EUvsDisinfo. 2020b. “Vote or Gays Will Take Your Children. 2020 Edition.” EU vs DISINFORMATION News and Analysis, 10.06.2020, available at: https://euvsdisinfo.eu/vote-or-gays-will-take-your-children-2020-edition
   Google Scholar
• Fisher, A. 2020. “Demonizing the Enemy: The Influence of Russian State-sponsored Media on American Audiences.” Post-Soviet Affairs 36 (4): 281–296. doi:10.1080/1060586X.2020.1730121.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Foxall, A. 2019. “From Evropa to Gayropa: A Critical Geopolitics of the European Union as Seen from Russia.” Geopolitics 24 (1): 174–193. doi:10.1080/14650045.2017.1417848.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freedman, L. 2015. “The Possibilities and Limits of Strategic Narratives.” In Strategic Narratives, Public Opinion, and War: Winning Domestic Support for the Afghan War, edited by B. De Graaf, G. Dimitriu, and J. Ringsmose, 17–36. London and New York: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Galeotti, M. 2019. Russian Political War: Moving beyond the Hybrid. London and New York: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Gaufman, E. 2017. Security Threats and Public Perception: Digital Russia and the Ukraine Crisis. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• GDELT Codebook. 2013. “GDELT – Data Format Codebook (V.1.03).” 25.08.2013, available at: http://data.gdeltproject.org/documentation/GDELT-Data_Format_Codebook.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Gerasimov, V. 2016. “Po Opytu Sirii [Based on the Experience from Syria].” Voenno-Promyshlennyy Kuryer 9 (624): 1–4.
   Google Scholar
• Gerber, T. P. 2015. “Foreign Policy and the United States in Russian Public Opinion.” Problems of Post-Communism 62 (2): 98–111. doi:10.1080/10758216.2015.1010909.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gius, E. 2016. “Narration and Escalation: An Empirical Study of Conflict Narratives.” DIEGESIS 5 (1): 4–25.
   Google Scholar
• Glazyev, S. Y. 2014. “Evrofashizm. Pochemu on Vozrazhdaietsa Cherez 69 Let Posle Pobedi?” Politika. Ekonomika’ Nauchnyi Zhurnal 1 (24): 203–208. [“Euro-fascism. Why it revives 69 years after being defeated?”], Gazeta ‘Zavtra’, 20(1069), 15.05.2014; as reprinted i.a. in ‘Sotsiologiia’, 2/2014: 40–45; ‘Bereginya. 777. Sova: Obshchestvo.
   Google Scholar
• Götz, E. 2017. “Putin, the State, and War: The Causes of Russia’s near Abroad Assertion Revisited.” International Studies Review 19 (2): 228–253. doi:10.1093/isr/viw009.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gvosdev, N. K. 2007. “Russia: “European But Not Western?”” Orbis 51 (1): 129–140. doi:10.1016/j.orbis.2006.10.008.
   Google Scholar
• Haukkala, H. 2015. “From Cooperative to Contested Europe? The Conflict in Ukraine as a Culmination of a Long-term Crisis in EU–Russia Relations.” Journal of Contemporary European Studies 23 (1): 25–40. doi:10.1080/14782804.2014.1001822.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Herrmann, J. 2017. “Nine Links in the Chain: The Weaponized Narrative, Sun Tzu, and the Essence of War.” The Strategy Bridge, 27.07.2017, available at: https://thestrategybridge.org/the-bridge/2017/7/27/nine-links-in-the-chain-the-weaponized-narrative-sun-tzu-and-the-essence-of-war
   Google Scholar
• Horbyk, R. 2017. “Narratives at War: Representations of Europe in News Media of Ukraine, Russia and Poland during Euromaidan.” In Europe Faces Europe: Narratives from Its Eastern Half, edited by J. Fornäs, 93–132. Fishponds, Bristol: Intellect.
   Google Scholar
• Hutter, S., and H. Kriesi. 2019. “Politicizing Europe in Times of Crisis.” Journal of European Public Policy 26 (7): 996–1017. doi:10.1080/13501763.2019.1619801.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaiser, W., and R. McMahon. 2017. “Narrating European Integration: Transnational Actors and Stories.” National Identities 19 (2): 149–160. doi:10.1080/14608944.2016.1274722.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kakabadze, S., and A. Makarychev. 2018. “A Tale of Two Orthodoxies: Europe in Religious Discourses of Russia and Georgia.” Ethnopolitics 17 (5): 485–502. doi:10.1080/17449057.2018.1495367.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kalensky, J. 2019. “How the Kremlin Exploits a Crisis.” Disinfo Portal, 1.02.2019, available at: https://disinfoportal.org/how-the-kremlin-exploits-a-crisis
   Google Scholar
• Kayali, L. 2020. “Twitter Uncovers State-backed Networks Linked to China, Russia, Turkey.” POLITICO, 11.06.2020, available at: https://www.politico.eu/article/twitter-uncovers-state-backed-networks-linked-to-china-russia-turkey
   Google Scholar
• Keller, F. B., D. Schoch, S. Stier, and J. Yang. 2020. “Political Astroturfing on Twitter: How to Coordinate a Disinformation Campaign.” Political Communication 37 (2): 256–280. doi:10.1080/10584609.2019.1661888.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khaldarova, I. 2019. “‘Brother’ or ‘Other’? Transformation of Strategic Narratives in Russian Television News during the Ukrainian Crisis.” Media, War & Conflict 175063521984601. doi:10.1177/1750635219846016.
   Google Scholar
• Kolossov, V. 2003. ““High” and “Low” Geopolitics: Images of Foreign Countries in the Eyes of Russian Citizens.” Geopolitics 8 (1): 121–148. doi:10.1080/714001015.
   Google Scholar
• Kragh, M., E. Andermo, and L. Makashova. 2020. “Conspiracy Theories in Russian Security Thinking.” Journal of Strategic Studies 1–35. doi:10.1080/01402390.2020.1717954.
   Google Scholar
• Kramer, A. E. 2019. “Russian General Pitches ‘Information’ Operations as a Form of War.” The New York Times, 2.03.2019, available at: https://www.nytimes.com/2019/03/02/world/europe/russia-hybrid-war-gerasimov.html
   Google Scholar
• Krekó, P., L. Györi, J. Dunajeva, J. Janda, O. Kundra, G. Mesežnikov, J. Mesík, M. Szylar, and A. Shekhovtsov. 2016. The Weaponization of Culture: Kremlin’s Traditional Agenda and the Export of Values to Central Europe. Budapest: Political Capital Institute.
   Google Scholar
• Kushnir, O. 2019. “Messianic Narrations in Contemporary Russian Statecraft and Foreign Policy.” Central European Journal for International and Security Studies 13 (1): 37–60.
   Google Scholar
• Leetaru, K. H. 2013. “Can We Forecast Conflict? A Framework for Forecasting Global Human Societal Behavior Using Latent Narrative Indicators.” PhD diss., Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois at Urbana-Campaign.
   Google Scholar
• Leichtova, M. 2014. Misunderstanding Russia: Russian Foreign Policy and the West. Farnham, Surrey: Ashgate Pub.
   Google Scholar
• Levada Center. 2020. Attitudes toward certain countries – Polling outcomes, last accessed on 15.06.2020, available at: https://www.levada.ru/indikatory/otnoshenie-k-stranam
   Google Scholar
• Lysenko, V., and C. Brooks. 2018. “Russian Information Troops, Disinformation, and Democracy.” First Monday 22 (5): 1–11.
   Google Scholar
• Makarychev, A. 2020. “Russia’s European Policies in a Post-liberal World.” In Russia in the Changing International System, edited by E. P. Dar and E. Ersen, 39–57. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Makukhin, O., L. Tsybulska, and R. Kavatsiuk. 2018. How Russian Media Foments Hostility toward the West. Kyiv: GMF Black Sea Trust for Regional Cooperation & The UCMC Hybrid Warfare Analytical Group.
   Google Scholar
• Matsaberidze, D. 2015. “Russia Vs. EU/US through Georgia and Ukraine.” Connections 14 (2): 77–86. doi:10.11610/Connections.14.2.06.
   Google Scholar
• Miskimmon, A., B. O’Loughlin, and L. Roselle. 2013. Strategic Narratives: Communication Power and the New World Order. London and New York: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Monroe, B. L. 2013. “The Five Vs of Big Data Political Science: Introduction to the Virtual Issue on Big Data in Political Science Political Analysis.” Political Analysis 21 (V5): 1–9. doi:10.1017/S1047198700014315.
   Google Scholar
• Morozov, V. 2018. “Identity and Hegemony in EU-Russia Relations: Making Sense of the Asymmetrical Entanglement.” In EU-Russia Relations in Crisis: Understanding Diverging Perceptions, edited by T. Casier and J. DeBardeleben, 30–49. London and New York: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Narayanan, V., P. N. Howard, B. Kollanyi, and M. Elswah. 2017. “Russian Involvement and Junk News during Brexit.” Oxford Internet Institute – Computational Propaganda Research Project, available at: www.comprop.oii.ox.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/sites/93/2017/12/Russia-and-Brexit-v27.pdf
   Google Scholar
• NATO. 2014. “Russia’s Accusations – Setting the Record Straight.” NATO.int, July 2014 (Factsheet), available at: https://www.nato.int/nato_static/assets/pdf/pdf_2014_07/20140716_140716-Factsheet_Russia_en.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Neumann, I. B. 2016. “Russia’s Europe, 1991–2016: Inferiority to Superiority.” International Affairs 92 (6): 1381–1399. doi:10.1111/1468-2346.12752.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Loughlin, J., G. O. ́. Tuathail, and V. Kolossov. 2005. “Russian Geopolitical Culture and Public Opinion: The Masks of Proteus Revisited.” Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 30 (3): 322–335. doi:10.1111/j.1475-5661.2005.00174.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pascale, C.-M. 2019. “The Weaponization of Language: Discourses of Rising Right-wing Authoritarianism.” Current Sociology 67 (6): 898–917. doi:10.1177/0011392119869963.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pomerantsev, P. 2014. Nothing Is True and Everything Is Possible. New York: PublicAffairs.
   Google Scholar
• Putin, V. 2012. “Poslanie Presidenta Federalnomu Sobraniyu.” [“President’s Address to the Federal Assembly”], Kremlin.ru, 12.12.2012, available at: http://kremlin.ru/events/president/news/17118
   Google Scholar
• Putin, V. 2013. “Speech at the Meeting of the Valdai Discussion Club.” Kremlin.ru, 19.09.2013, available at: http://en.kremlin.ru/news/6007
   Google Scholar
• Radio Svoboda. (2019). “Putin: “Satellity” SShA “Podhrjukivajut” Vashingtonu” [“putin: U.S. “Satellites” “Grunt Along” with Washington”].” Radio Svoboda, 20.02.2019, available at: https://www.svoboda.org/a/29780660.html
   Google Scholar
• Raik, K. 2019. “The Ukraine Crisis as a Conflict over Europe’s Political, Economic and Security Order.” Geopolitics 24 (1): 51–70.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ramsay, G., and S. Robertshaw. 2019. Weaponizing News: RT, Sputnik and Targeted Disinformation. London: King’s College London.
   Google Scholar
• Rid, T. 2020. Active Measures: The Secret History of Disinformation and Political Warfare. London: Profile Books.
   Google Scholar
• Rogers, J., and A. Tyushka. 2017. “‘Hacking’ into the West: Russia’s Anti-hegemonic Drive and the Strategic Narrative Offensive.” Defence Strategic Communications 1 (2): 35–60.
   Google Scholar
• Rousseau, E., and S. J. Baele. 2020. ““Filthy Lapdogs”, “Jerks”, and “Hitler”: Making Sense of Insults in International Relations.” International Studies Review. doi:10.1093/isr/viaa047.
   Google Scholar
• Russia Today. 2013. ““Recognizing Same-sex Unions Brings Us Closer to Apocalypse” – Head of Russian Orthodox Church.” Russia Today, 22.07.2013, available at: https://www.rt.com/news/church-same-sex-unions–404/
   Google Scholar
• Sakwa, R. 2020. “Is Putin an Ism?” Russian Politics 5 (3): 255–282.
   Google Scholar
• Salway, A., and D. Herman. 2011. “Digitalized Corpora as Theory-Building Resource: New Methods of Narrative Enquiry.” In New Narratives: Stories and Storytelling in the Digital Age, edited by R. Page and B. Thomas, 120–137. Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press.
   Google Scholar
• Samoilenko, S. A., and M. Laurelle. 2020. “Character Assassination as Strategic Communication in EU-Russia Relations.” In Strategic Communication in EU-Russia Relations, edited by E. Pashentsev, 135–160. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Schwirtz, M. 2019. “Top Secret Russian Unit Seeks to Destabilize Europe, Security Officials Say.” The New York Times, 8.10.2019, available at: https://www.nytimes.com/2019/10/08/world/europe/unit-29155-russia-gru.html
   Google Scholar
• Shekhovtsov, A. 2017. Russia and the Western Far Right: Tango Noir. London and New York: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Suslov, M. 2018. ““Russian World” Concept: Post-Soviet Geopolitical Ideology and the Logic of “Spheres of Influence”.” Geopolitics 23 (2): 330–353.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tyushka, A. 2018. “Russian Geopolitical Narratives from “Geopolitics 101” to Postmodern Revisionism: Implications for the Baltic-Pontic Region.” Global Affairs 4 (4–5): 487–501.
   Google Scholar
• Tyushka, A. 2019. “Hybrid War(fare): The Challenge of Contagion.” Torun International Studies 12 (1): 5–29.
   Google Scholar
• United States Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations. 2018. Putin’s Asymmetric Assault on Democracy in Russia and Europe: Implications for U.S. National Security A Minority Staff Report, Washington, 10.01.2018.
   Google Scholar
• Van Herpen, M. H. 2016. Putin’s Propaganda Machine: Soft Power and Russian Foreign Policy. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield.
   Google Scholar
• Vartanova, E. 2012. “The Russian Media Model in the Context of Post-Soviet Dynamics.” In Comparing Media Systems beyond the Western World, edited by D. Hallin and P. Mancini, 119–143. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Ventsel, A., S. Hansson, M. L. Madisson, and V. Sazonov. 2019. “Discourse of Fear in Strategic Narratives: The Case of Russia’s Zapad War Games.” Media, War & Conflict. doi:10.1177/1750635219856552.
   Google Scholar
• Wagner, W. 2017. “Liberal Power Europe.” Journal of Common Market Studies 55 (6): 1398–1414.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wagnsson, C. 2020. “What Is at Stake in the Information Sphere? Anxieties about Malign Information Influence among Ordinary Swedes.” European Security 29 (4): 397–415.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wagnsson, C., and C. Barzanje. 2019. A Framework for Analysing Antagonistic Narrative Strategies: A Russian Tale of Swedish Decline Media, War & Conflict ( published as OnlineFirst on 8.11.2019), 10.1177/1750635219884343.
   Google Scholar
• Watanabe, K. 2017. “The Spread of the Kremlin’s Narratives by a Western News Agency during the Ukraine Crisis.” The Journal of International Communication 23 (1): 138–158.
   Google Scholar
• Werning Rivera, S., and J. D. Bryan. 2019. “Understanding the Sources of anti-Americanism in the Russian Elite.” Post-Soviet Affairs 35 (5–6): 376–392.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yablokov, I. 2018. Fortress Russia: Conspiracy Theories in Post-Soviet Russia. Cambridge: Polity Press.
   Google Scholar